Identifying Ethical Differences in Culture Essay

Identifying Ethical Differences in Culture - Essay Example In regarding guanxi, it usually outstrips any rules and regulations that run contrary to it. In China guanxi obliges one to defer to a complex system of personal relationships and moral obligations, which may even date back generations, in all aspect of life. This certainly includes business as well. Guanxi places relationships above all other considerations and in business one may be forced to use their position to purchase products from an associate that may in fact be more expensive or of less quality than is available somewhere else. Actions like these, if detected by a company from one of its staff would usually be grounds for dismissal as well as legal action in many cases. This disparity between worlds is due to one of the major cultural differences between the U.S. and China. In the US business and even personal relationships are usually transactional, that is there is a give and take that is considered an equitable exchange between two parties. This usually holds for both bu siness entities as well as personal relationships. Chinese cultural is far more relationally oriented and is often guided by complex associations of family and friends over many generations. Based essentially upon honor and respect, it is far more important to maintain good relationships under the rules of guanxi than it is to do what is best for your company. This is of course considered treason in the U.S., while in China it is accepted and tolerated by most organizations. Although the law does limit it to some extent and the excessive.

Strategy management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Strategy management - Essay Example According to Yip, internationalization is driven by market, cost, government and competitive drivers, which influence the level of market competitiveness and success of globalization. In the telecommunication industry, globalization has become a major way of improving sales, market control and performance (Yip, Biscarri & Monti, 2000). Companies such as apple, Samsung and Nokia have entered markets in different parts of the globe including emerging and developed countries. Market driver remains the major motivation for globalization by most of these companies as it seeks to improve its presence, perception and performance in the market. Market drivers describe the needs and preferences of the customers, the existence of global demand among others (Lal & Strachan, 2007). Telecommunication industry is one of the most dynamic sector in which consumer loyalty is not assured and changes in taste and preferences affect the demand of different products. Within the telecommunication industry, products such as mobile phones, smartphones and computers perform based on how they satisfy the needs of the market. Companies such as Samsung and apple have upped the competition in the telecommunication industry, developing a strong market control as compared to other companies. The companies in demand in Africa, Asia and other parts of the world due to the strong consumer preference that has emerged due to the sleek designs and consumer centrality adopt Apple products. This has caused a need for these companies to enter into new markets and fill the void currently within the global market beat the strong competition (Yip, Biscarri & Monti, 2000). Cost drivers include the need to adopt scales economies, improved supply chain and exploitation of country specific cultural differences across the globe. To achieve the economies of scales, businesses cannot continue serving the national or domestic markets. As a result,

Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay

Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay Even though the term colourism, otherwise known as shadeism, has gained popularity in recent years, the concept is deeply rooted in the colonial days of slavery. Defined as a form of  prejudice or  discrimination  in which persons are treated differently based on the social meanings attached to skin color, this light skin versus dark skin issue has had a damaging effect on the psyche of young black Jamaicans today. However, according to Cedric Herring colourism operates in two different ways: interracially and intraracially. Interracial colourism occurs when members of one racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of another racial group. Intraracial colourism occurs when members of a racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of their own race (3). While I will be analysing both forms of colourism, the focus of this thesis will be on intraracial colourism, specifically within the Jamaican community. After the abolition of slavery in Jamaica, the immersion of a middle and lower class was integrated into the hierarchical structure of Jamaica that previously only claimed whites as the elite. As a result, due to the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulattoes-a treatment that allowed them to have an education-, they became the ruling middle class with the then former black slaves turned peasants as the lower class. To make matters worse, the historical and stereotypical depiction of Africans as ugly, stupid and uncivilized and Europeans as pretty, intelligent and superior only served to brainwash black Jamaicans into thinking that they are the inferior race. Thus, the tendency to perceive or behave toward members of a racial category based on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone has resulted in, not only the segregation of a people within a specific ethnic group, but it has also created, amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica, extreme methods through which the they will do anything to attain as many refined European attributes as possible. According to William Lynchs letter The Making of a Slave, his secret to controlling slaves is by pitting them against each other, by exploiting differences such as age and skin color that would, after some time, sow dissension amongst them, one that would last for many years to come. While there has been extensive research and academia founded on the topic of racism within the West Indian context during the colonial period, only a few have examined intraracial skin color hierarchies amongst the black race and even less amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica in the 21st century. It is therefore, the purpose of this study to show how stereotypes and perceptions about light and dark skin signify an inheritance of similar attitudes documented in earlier generations of black Jamaicans, which in turn, sheds light on the ever-present discrimination that continues takes place on a day to day basis in their lives. It is my hope that this study will address the following: Demonstrate the link of Jamaicas colonial past to colourism today Show the medias role toward preference and how it has affected black Jamaicans Explain the extreme measures taken in order to be brown Many historians (Henriques 1953; Norris 1962) have acknowledged the fact that slavery has had adverse psychological effects on Africans (Danieli 394), especially those of a darker complexion. As such, the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulatto slaves (James and Harris 234) has been able to transcend years of black empowerment movements in such a way that it is clearly evident in Jamaicas society today through colourism (Herring 3). According to Carolyn Cooper, the remnants of Jamaicas colonial past are ever present in the social interactions of its people today, no matter the context. Her argument is further supported by Deborah Gabriel (28) who has studied race relations among Jamaicans and attests to the fact that colour prejudice is visible in the societys socio-economic environment. Moreover, Antonio Gramscis cultural hegemony theory, which is explored in the works of Boggs (39), Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez (62), adds another dimension to the analysis of colourism by stating that the superimposition of one culture over another negatively affects their already established social structure. It is common knowledge therefore that the white ideal- through which all analyses of colourism is based- expresses the view that blacks are the inferior race and whites, the superior (Kardiner et. al 315). Even Fanons psychoanalytical theory of racism and the dehumanization of African slaves in the colonial epoch support the idea that white supremacy has led black people to develop an inferiority complex. Yet, despite the call for black unity among the African race advocated by numerous social and political groups such as the Pan-African movements and Rastafarianism (Caravantes 2003), there are still messages being transmitted that stipulate that light skin people are better t han their darker counterparts. Carl Boggs lends aid to this belief through his analysis in the role of mainstream media. His study shows how the elite in society have been able to perpetuate the ideology that whites are the superior race (39). On the other hand, however, Margaret Andersen and Howard Taylor examine the way in which light skin black people are depicted as elite in their own right when compared to their darker counterparts (53). Consequently, the association between white people and light skin people as more intelligent, more beautiful and more civilized can be found numerous media outlets in Jamaica. To add to that theory is the analysis of Buju Bantons song Love me browning by Patricia Mohammed who stated that his song has reinforced and reflected the idea that men value the colour of light skin in women in Jamaica (35). This preference has led to the exacerbation of black womens self-esteem who now take it upon themselves to bleach their skin in an attempt to seem more desirable. According to Natasha Barnes, not only is skin colour used as a handicap to gain social access, it is also seen as a form of economic mobility and stability among the light skin people of Jamaica (*). Therefore, it isnt necessary that black people work as hard as they do to move up the socio-economic ladder because decent job qualifications are not more valuable than the colour of ones skin (Miller, ). However, after having researched the subject for this thesis project, I found that there was an abundance of information based on African American experiences along with the numerous studies which have proven that people with darker skin are subjugated to more prejudice than their lighter skinned counterparts. In fact, very little of the information found related to the theme of colourism as a system of language, internal scripts and external practices that govern the everyday interactions and experiences of young black men and women as it relates to skin tone  [1]  in the contemporary society of Jamaica. While I do agree with many historian sociologists, such as Fernando Henriques and Katrin Norris, who have highlighted the topic of skin politics in Jamaica, I intend to go further by examining the phenomenon of colourism as it relates to present day interactions and experiences. By examining the historical and contemporary significance of skin color, it will be proven that discrimination based on skin color is a present reality that will assume increasing significance in the future as current understandings of race and racial classifications disintegrate.   Furthermore, for the purpose of this thesis I have taken the liberty of looking at numerous primary and secondary sources, such as those written by Marcus Garvey, Dr. Eric Williams, Francis O.C, Anthony Richmond, and David Lowenthal. They have all have given me great insight into historical context of race relations during the colonial period and how black people reacted to this unjust treatment through the various black power movements, especially those executed by Rastafarians. On the other hand, however, due to the fact that this thesis is based on race relations within a specific social group in contemporary Jamaica, many of the research executed had to be done via questionnaires and face to face group discussions with Jamaican men and women. As a result, their responses have allowed me to fill in the information that was lacking in the secondary sources. Through the use of questionnaires, I was able to target audience of ten people in an efficient amount of time. Nevertheless, as with all data collection, some of opinions expressed warranted a deeper analysis of the subject at hand. Consequently, I resorted to focus groups of r people and individual interviews so that greater insight would be given as to why people had certain opinions; to know how they thought or felt about this topic, as it is a term that is rarely used in public spheres, and even less so in private ones. To conclude, this research speaks to the gaps in empirical research and theoretical conceptualizations of colourism by providing an in-depth exploration of skin tone bias and discrimination among African Jamaicans. Additionally, it seeks to develop a foundation for a theoretical framework that captures the key features of colourism in the 21st century. As such, an examination of race relations will show whether or not there is a preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, and if so the extent to which one would go to achieve features that approximate a Caucasian appearance. The origins of colourism The whites claim superiority, as is done all over the world, and, unlike other parts, the coloured, who ancestrally are the illegitimate off-springs of black and white, claim a positive superiority over the blacks. They train themselves to believe that in the slightest shade the coloured man is above the black man and so it runs right up to whiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ -Marcus Garvey () Colourism exists everywhere in the African Diaspora where slavery or colonization brought with it the imposition of western ideology and white supremacy, (Gabriel, 25). Approximately six hundred thousand Africans came to Jamaica from the Bight of Biafra, the Gold Coast, West Central Africa and the Bight of Benin between 1533 and 1807 (http://www.nlj.gov.jm/NLJ/files/u1/slave_trade_bibliography.pdf, 15/03/2013) to work as slaves on the sugar cane plantation. Upon their arrival, European plantation owners established themselves as superior based on a paradigm through which Africans were biologically and legally inferior because of their skin colour and as such they were forced to endure hard labour. This racist social system, known as white supremacy, resulted in Negro subordination through white domination. However, with the start of miscegenation between white slave owners and African slaves- through rape- a new racial group was created which in turn created a new paradigm. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it was widely held that slaves of colour should not be employed in field labour and that they should be given preference in the training of tradesman, the flower of the slave population.' (Higman, 189). Mulatto children, although most of them were not freed, they were considered better than the black population because of their close proximity to the whites. As a result, they were offered an education, an opportunity through which they held an even greater advantage over the African slaves. Thus, when the sugar plantations experienced a decline in revenue and plantation owners were sinking into debt, some of them left Jamaica, retuning to live in England off the money they had earned through the hard labor of the Africans. This movement off the island by the whites left a void in the social hierarchy, which mulattos came to fill (Gabriel, 27). Consequently, gradations in skin colour through social stratification allowed these mulatto men and women to assume a higher status, socially and economically, according to the lightness of their skin tone. This hierarchical structure persisted even after the complete emancipation of slavery in 1838 with the introduction of freed slaves as lower class, mulattoes as middle class and whites as the elite. Yet, even after more than 200 hundred years of freedom, the idea that a persons destiny is predetermined by their skin tone proves that this historical continuum still exists. Colourism is so deeply embedded in the structure and organization of Caribbean societies that people identify themselves and form relationships according to the standards implemented by the white British (Flynn, 2011). While the 21st century has seen many changes with regards to race discrimination, interpersonal and intrapersonal colourism continues its reigns in Jamaican society. This is ever present in the social interactions among young adults and children who experience discrimination because they are too dark or preference because they are light skin. A standard that is further highlighted by a 22 year old male interviewee who recounted a particular situation in high school where a girl told him outright that she would not date him because he was too dark. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦because internalized racism is so firmly entrenched in the consciousness of black people, they are often unaware that they have a colour complex (Gabriel, 22). Browning, which replaces terms like mulatto, terceroon, quadroon, mustee, musteefino used in the colonial period is a fabled ideal of female beauty and male power in Jamaica society: the just right mix of white and black (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120122/focus/focus5.html, 12/03/2013). However, this term browning also reduces the person being referred to as a mere object, a trophy, a prized possession; they are only seen for the colour of their skin and the socio-economic status attached to their nearness to European characteristics and distance from the African (Henriques, *). As a result, many men and women in Jamaica today are obsessed with trying to attain this ideal because they see it as a sign of upward mobility from their destitute stations. Therefore, while it is totally understandable that e ach person is entitled to their preference, the fact remains that this preference is based on a premise which reinforces the idea that black is undesirable and light skin is ideal. This train of thought is in keeping with the social stratification theory that has been interwoven in the socio-historical tapestry of Jamaica. For a mother to insist that her daughter, black or coloured, gone to buckra [master] house, gone live so that she gone lift de colour was seen as a sign of pride during the days of slavery (Henriques,*). Even now, there are parents who prefer their sons and daughters marry white (Norris, *) because they see it as a chance for their children to move upward in a society that acknowledges and propels the worth of the white bias. Consequently, these children have grown up with the idea that a dark skin tone limits ones chances to a better life and a lighter complexion is the pathway to success. An ideology that is further cemented by the responses given to a survey conducted on this theme of colourism, more specifically preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, through which the majority of respondents despite age, social class and education believ e that if one is fairer in complexion, they are automatically offered more opportunities. Likewise is the case for young adults transitioning from school life to independent status by entering the workforce. I am not surprised that certain employers request light-skinned individuals for recruitmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Appearances do matter in recruitment, and generally speaking, Jamaicans are unable to see the beauty in a man or woman of African descent (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110914/letters/letters1.html, 12/03/2013). Explicit discrimination in the hiring process of many firms is a cause for concern within the Jamaican job market. Historically, darker men and women were not allowed to work in banks, government offices or at the front desk of private businesses until the 1960s (Gabriel, 33). Yet, even though change has been fought for by many involved in the Pan-African and Rastafarian movement, the existence of companies that openly state that they want light skin applicants does nothing for the advancement of a country whose motto recites Out of many, One people . The Acquired Anti-Own Race Syndrome created by Clinton Hutton, a lecturer in political philosophy and culture at the University of the West Indies, Mona refers to the the philosophy and psychology of assumed European world cultural superiority expressed by African peoples in their relations with each other and in perceiving and operating in the world (Hutton, ). Consequently, this ideology expresses the views that both socially and economically, Jamaicans have used the predetermined white supremacy standards to interact with each other. With this in mind, it is no wonder why dark skin Jamaicans think it necessary to try to elevate themselves out of their situations. They are measured by unrealistic goals designed to keep them at the bottom of hierarchical structure and they will remain there if the damaged psyche of those who reinforce these ideals dont change. If not, black Jamaicans will never truly be able to gain access to decent jobs based on merit alone as light skin far outwei ghs education and training skills (Miller, 3164). *** Many sociologists have argued that the mass media promote narrow definitions of who people are and what they can be (Andersen and Taylor, 53). For centuries the media has influenced and propagated the ideal body image for men and women across the globe, which in turn affects their personality, how they interact with one another and their health (Lubkin, 197). Even long before the advent of technological advances the global population has been exposed to paintings of idyllic body images as can be seen in the works of Rubens, Renoir and Raphael who influenced cultural standards for the ultimate body type in their respective eras (Kirsh, 126). As such, one shouldnt be surprised by the outright and even subliminal messages (Jackson, 350) projected to the masses that stipulate what is beautiful and what is not. Televisions, magazines, music and more notably in contemporary societies, the internet, have transmitted these idealistic images that would later epitomize an era. Intrinsically, i t is these major multibillion-dollar media conglomerate companies that concentrate their control on what is assimilated on a day to day basis. Their promotion on what is culturally acceptable has had an explosive effect on the way people think about themselves and about others. According to Italian communist Antonio Gramscis theory on cultural hegemony- through which he broadens the materialist Marxist theory- the ruling class within a culturally diverse society superimposes its values, whether social, economical, political or religious, upon the lower classes, who in turn buy into the status quo operating against their established social structure (Dines and Humez, 62). This dominance of one class or group over another can be used to explain the way in which media is used as a tool by the elites to perpetuate their power, wealth and status [by popularizing] their own philosophy, culture and morality (Boggs, 39). As a result, through analysis of the history of all forms of media leading up to the 21st century, one can easily stipulate that European features and fair skin are more pervasive- no matter the race-, youth is more accepted and beauty is whatever and whomever can approximate to both these ideals. A correlation can then be made between media and th e black ugliness/white beauty binary of imperialism and slavery that has spawned a racialized beauty empire (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 196). And it is this correlation that highlights the conditions under which black people must perform in order to be successful; the same correlation that stipulates black beauty in the 21st century is a paradox. Marcus Garvey advocated for Black Nationalism whereby he encouraged African people to be proud of their race and see the beauty in their own kind (Caravantes, 2003). This movement de-centered white beautys iconicity through anti colonialist aesthetics focused on natural hair and black self-love so as to redefine blackness through positive valuation (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 198). In collaboration with Rastafarianism, these Pan-Africanism Movements promoted ideologies like black is beautiful and Im black and Im proud, however, when mainstream media daily bombards the population with images that say otherwise, what is this country Out of many, one people supposed to believe? The idea that political, social and economical institutions have bought into this perception of superiority/inferiority within the African race only serves to reinforce this long standing belief. Advertising agencies have projected this standard at all levels in the Jamaican society. According to Carolyn Cooper, colourism can be found even at tertiary level education. It is the faces of lighter skin males and female students that are used to advertise the institutions at an international level, whereas the darker students were found in the local yellow pages. She further explains another situation in which family oriented advertisements display images of a dark skin father and light skin mother with a dark skin son and light skin daughter. Social ads also show the same thing. They big-up all the light skin girls them. Yuh cant leave yuh house without seein them brownins on billboards, in the news, on party flyers, in magazines. They dominate the industry, says a 23 year old cocoa coloured female interviewee who resides in Trinidad pursuing her bachelors degree at the University of the West Indies. The idea that men are not as affected by skin colour, hair texture and facial f eatures as their female counterparts, demonstrates their social and economical mobility in a patriarchal society despite the colour of their skin. As a result, it is only the representations of dark-skinned African women as those who are not ideal that is subliminally and openly transmitted. Indubitably, when one references Jamaican media, its music is highly influential, beginning with the famous Bob Marley, who put Jamaica on the map musically, with songs that referenced peace and black unity. However, when Buju Banton came out with his song Love me browning in 1992, consisting of the following lyrics: Me love me car, me love me bike, me love me money and ting but most of all me love me browning, it caused an uproar within the Jamaican society who accused him of denigrating the image of black women by promoting a colonial mindset (Mohammad, 35). Yet, even though he sang Love Black woman within that same year as a response to all the negative comments he was receiving, it didnt hide the fact that he was expressing the views of many Jamaican men who had a penchant for lighter-skinned women. Likewise in contemporary Jamaica, with the popularity of skin bleaching in songs from Vybz Kartel, who has also bleached his skin colour because he wanted to show off his tattoos ()*, Jamaicans are bombarded with the views that having a lighter complexion is the way to go. Music videos use women that are fairer in complexion when the song is about love and for dancehall music the predominantly darker skinned women are used to gyrate. Objectified as a sexual creature a darker woman isnt seen as someone a man would want to build a life with because she is considered only within a sexual context. While there have been some transitions in music where dark skin women are used with terms of endearment, the majority of the popular music videos shown still illustrate the European influenced cookie cutter image of women to sell their songs. The media is all about selling goods and selling fantasies is one of their products. It presents men with the ideal woman and vice versa. As such, lighter complexioned men and women, as depicted in all forms of media, are seen as trophies. According to Natasha Barnes, skin colour still serves as a handicap in access to good service, securing decent jobs, housing and other social amenities (Barnes, 286). Thus, a higher complexioned woman is seen as the symbol of a mans success whereas the man is seen as a way out of poverty and an elevation of social status for women. As such, the following statement given by a 20 year old anonymous female in response to a question about social interactions in Jamaica and the perceptions men and women have of each other, will clearly provide insight into the minds of young African men and women of contemporary Jamaica: If you have a light skin man in Jamaica, especially if you come from inner city Jamaica, is like you have gold. Youre introduced to a new world, you meet new people, have more opportunities because his world is completely different to your own. You cant force anyone to think black is beautiful when the evidence around them testifies to the contrary.   And which of our leaders are going from a rich mahogany to a high yellow shade? The poor can only afford bleaching creams, but the  well-to-do have other means (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120226/news/news4.html, 25/01/2013) With particular attention to the Jamaican government ministers and officials, one sees that darker hued representatives are a minority. While it is not the fault of these officials to possess the education necessary that would allow them the chance to enter into such high esteemed positions the questions remain: Were they offered more opportunities due to their skin complexion? With such a high percentage of those who were given questionnaires saying Yes (82%) a lighter skin hue does open more doors for you, doubt still lingers. However, when newspaper ads highlight the fact that there are still proprietors requesting that trainees be brown or light-skinned as a prerequisite for employment in their firms (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110911/lead/lead1.html , 02/02/2013) it supports the idea that discrimination persists to this day. Certainly, the government has spoken out against any form of skin prejudice and promised to take action, even urging people to boycott businesses lacking black faces, but few express confidence that the culprits will ever be named, (http://www.ipsnews.net/2011/09/jamaica-wanted-light-skinned-only-please/, 02/02/2013). A Darker Shade of Pale Weighing about 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms) on average and covering some 22 square feet (2 square meters), the human skin is the largest organ of the body, composed of a complex system of cell layers, nerves and glands that not only protects them from but also connects them to the outside world. However, what makes an African persons skin colour different to that of a white person, is the amount of melanin produced in the epidermis. As such, darker-skinned people produce more numerous and deeper-colored melanin particles than their fairer-skinned counterparts, which in turn acts as a benefit since they dont need as much bone-strengthening vitamin D, produced through exposure to UV rays  (http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/skin-article/, 09/03/2013). Skin bleaching, also known as skin lightening or skin whitening, on the other hand, refers to the practice of using chemical substances in an attempt to reduce the prominence of skin discolorations and even lighten skin tone by lessening the concentration of  melanin produced. This whitening process can help lighten a tan, fade scars, and alleviate dark patches on the skin through the use of topical skin lightening creams and lotions that often contain plant extracts that have bleaching effects on the skin or chemical agents such as hydroquinone, azelaic acid, and retinoic acid. While several chemicals have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, some have proved to be toxic or have questionable safety profiles. Their harmful effects add to the controversy surrounding their use and the impacts they have on certain ethnic groups who apply skin lighteners to their entire body so as to achieve a lighter complexion. But this can be very risky as the active ingredient in some blea ching creams contain steroids or mercury, a toxic agent that can lead to mercury poisoning causing serious psychiatric, neurological, and  kidney  problem (http://www.webmd.com/beauty/face/skin-lightening-products, 09/03/2013) With a history that can be dated as far back as the Elizabethan age of powder and paint (Williams, 1957), the elaborate white make-up of Japanese Geishas (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/apr/04/japan.nicolemowbray, 08/03/2013) or even the deep rooted desire Indians to have pale skin because it will that is entwined with Indias complex social hierarchy or caste system (Gomes and Westerhof 2001), it is evident that skin bleaching has existed for thousands of years. Yet, despite the warnings given by health officials to educate the masses about the dangers of skin bleaching creams, there are millions of people worldwide who dont heed these messages, particularly Jamaicans, who in fact, have reached dangerous proportions, particularly in the countrys slums. For them, a lighter complexion is seen as a ticket to upward mobility: socially, professionally and economically. As a result, they paste their entire bodies with white cream, don a track suit and intermittently try to refrain fr om the suns darkening powers. The various homemade concoctions such as toothpaste, curry powder, milk powder, household bleach, aloe vera and cornmeal that are used as part of their skin-lightening routine, a routine that some people do up to three times a day, is a way for them to achieve their goal (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20091115/news/news3.html, 12/03/2013). Frantz Fanon (1952), the Martinique-born French psychiatrist, used psychoanalytical theory to explore the psyche of the Negro as shaped by the Eurocentric world in which he lives, especially in a colonial context vis-à  -vis skin colour. Although he does not actually reference skin bleaching, he does speak of the inferiority complex engendered in the mind of Black people, who try to adapt to and imitate the culture of the colonizer so as to attain some sort of identity, especially after having been forcibly removed from their own African roots.   With that in mind, the attempt to assign color privilege based upon proximity to whiteness by circumnavigating the parameters of the white/non-white binary racial hierarchy is the spectrum upon which Pigmentocracy, and therefore colourism, is based (Blay, 5). It is the unconscious and unnatural training of black people from a young age to associate blackness with wrongness that has given rise to this widespread global phenomenon of skin w hitening.   The idea that ones destiny is intertwined with the colour of ones skin is ludicrous to some, however, in the lives of these Jamaicans, it is as absolute as night and day. Synonymous with the practice of slaves in the past, men and women are currently trying to ameliorate their socio-economic standing by marrying into families of a higher breed, but the only way to even reach this gateway of social mobility, according to them, is to physically alter their looks as well. Popular Jamaican proverbs like anything too black nuh good, or when yuh black yuh affi stick back and if yuh brown come around reinforce the high degree of colour prejudice existing in contemporary Jamaica today. The White  ideal (Kardiner   Ovesey, 1962) which includes pale skin, long, straight hair, and aquiline features, assesses the enduring influences on societal assessments of human value. Skin bleaching then represents one attempt to approximate the White ideal and cons

Comparing Science and Religion in Frankenstein and Angels and Demons Es

Comparing Science and Religion in Frankenstein and Angels and Demons Science and religion have been at odds since back in Galileo’s day and maybe even before. The battle rages on even today with debates on cloning and stem cell research. These issues can be seen not only today’s literary works but also in the works from the years past. Two great examples of the past and present are: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Dan Brown’s Angels and Demons. Both deal with the issue of the roles that science and religion play. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a horror story written in 1831. It tells a tale of Victor Frankenstein’s obsession with playing God and creating a man and the consequences that come with it. Not only does the book reflect on Victor’s life and but also on the monster’s life and how it deals with the situations at hand. Angels and Demons is a suspense thriller written in 2000. Robert Langdon has been asked to help solve a murder mystery because it is believed that a secret society that he has studied called the illuminati are behind it. The story takes a ton of twist and turns that involve a container of antimatter, the Catholic Church and a dead priest’s secret. Even though both of these books were written in different times and with totally different plots they still both bring to light the battle between science and religion that may never diminish. Victor Frankenstein is obsessed with his to attempt to create a human. He works on it constantly alienating friends and loved ones. His obsession is finally rewarded with success; he manages to create a monster. This is where Mary Shelley starts to bring in the lesson of playing God. When Victor looks at his creation, he sees what a horror he has created and how hideous a creature it is. â€Å"No mortal could support the horror of that countenance. A mummy again endued with animation could not be so hideous as that wretch† (Shelley 44). Shelley shows that man cannot create things without messing it up. This is would not be the last time that scientist went to far to attempt to create perfection. In 1991 Michael Stewart wrote a story called Prodigy in which a man messes with his daughter’s DNA to make her smarter. However, she becomes a child that has evil genes. (Nelkin 35). This is another way authors show that man is not capable of imitating God. Even though Victor’s description of... ...ck facts before committing them to complete believe. These two books show very well what can happen when religion and science try to battle with each other. There are two types of extremes. Those that want to use advanced technology to expand into the realms of God and those that want to use their religious stance to stop technology from advancing. Frankenstein is blinded by his obsession to create life and the Carmerlengo Carlo Ventresca went to the extreme to punish those that he thought had disobeyed his religion even if it was his own father. Neither extreme is completely right and yet both sides tend to think that they have all the answers. It is a battle that has been going on for centuries and one that is not soon to be done. Works Cited Brown, Dan. Angels and Demons. Pocket Star Books. New York, 2000. Mazur, Allan. Science three, religion zero. Society. May June 1996 V 33 No.4. P 20-28. Nelkin, Dorothy. Genetics, God and sacred DNA. Society. May/June. 1196 V33 no.4 pg 29-43. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Bantam Classics. New York, 1818. Silver, Lee. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. www.princeton.edu/wws320/films/Frankenstein/Frankenstein%20essay.htm

The Hazard of Internet, Cell Phone, and Television Addiction

I am a technology addict. When I have my computer connected to the internet, I can forget the time. I am very busy to search any informations through the internet. Beside internet, I also use my cell phone to chat with my friends all day long. One more activity that can make me addicted is spending my time to watch my favorite TV programs. Yeah, those three kinds of technology are very enjoyable. But, I want people to know the potential risk of over using internet, cell phone, and television in the daily life.First of all, those three kinds of technology make us lazy. Take a look when we are too enjoy watching our favorite TV programs, we will postpone our assignments. We will delay them in 5 minutes later, then 5 minute later again, and again, and finally we don't finish them. Moreover, our time for studying are reduce. We are more interested watching television, browsing through internet, or chatting by phone than study the lesson. When we get assignments from lecturers, we just co py and paste from internet.Once we are too over using those technologies, we will be very wasteful person. for example, If we chat with friends all day long, we will spend so much money to pay phone bills. If we are blogging through the internet, we also have to pay the bandwidth bills. Or maybe, sometimes we don't turn off the computer or the television until we are fall asleep, so the electric claim will increase. Thus, our monthly expense will uncontrolable.Some studies find that over use of those technologies can create diseaseses. A simple example is if we are sitting in front of the screen for a long time without rest, absolutely we will get stomachache, headache, and back pain. The radiation of television or computer screen are also dangerous for our eyes. Just take a look to me, who has been suffered myopic since I become television addict. Another case is when we are using cell phone, actually, we are potentially get the brain cancer.According to Vini Khurana, one of Britai n's top neurosurgeons, using cell phones for more than 10 years can effectively double risk of developing the cancer, such as Vestibular schwannoma (accoustic neuroma) and Astrocytoma (Karachi, 2008). How terrible they are, aren't they? No doubt that those three kinds of technology bring big impact in our life. They give us pleasure and happines. So we can very addict of them. But, they will be very dangerous for us, if we can not manage the time to use them. Thus, cosidering the potential risk of them are very important. (an23)

Effects of Eastern Religions Essay

Eastern religions and their unique belief systems are transforming many social and religious thoughts into an assortment of means for acquiring and developing innovative and contemporary spiritual growth. One of the more influential shifts in mixing religious traditions into western religious cultures may well be considered ritualistic applications, acceptance, and practicing of meditation. Freely borrowing the principles of eastern religious traditions allows an individual extended opportunity to open a connection with his or her chosen God, or Supreme Being, by developing positive emotions, and providing a mental calmness; mean while establishing an acute mental strength within oneself. This practice of clearing the mind, projects an unfragmented focus into the inner self and ones mental intuitiveness, enabling a sharpness and keen ability to stimulate mental alertness, and even suggesting the possibility for mental self-healing. With such widened expressions of religious flexibility, an improved and more comprehensive understanding of diverse truths of belief systems are capable of being discovered. Additionally, through the use of multiple religious observances, one can bear witness to how such effects of Hinduism and Buddhist traditions of meditation, has transformed and enhanced traditional rituals in western religious cultures. Even medicinal benefits can be achieved through the use of advanced breathing techniques, energy practices, and other mental, and physical stimulus. The following synopsis will demonstrate the effects of how ancient beliefs and traditions have produced influences of varying proportions on western civilization. Many eastern religions play an important role in modern medicine. In the past, western medicine has incorporated eastern medicine paralleling different sacred rituals. Many Eastern religions have given birth to a medical practice of their own; one such example includes Taoism. Taoism believes in studying nature and how man is affected by its healing effects. From this adherence to medicinal belief rose the practice of acupuncture, which consists of generating a â€Å"flow of energy,† and how those flows affect the body (Articles base, 2007). Acupuncture, another form of medicinal equivalency, has currently attracted attention and notoriety world-wide. Those who have experienced this sensation have claimed that it leaves one with a feeling of exhilaration. A study conducted by the Stanford University School of Medicine, who promotes acupuncture as having medicinal value, supports its true worth by assisting with such anxieties and medical dilemmas as depression during pregnancy. According to Rachel Manber, PhD, professor of psychiatry and behavioral science, stated â€Å"They hope the results will raise awareness of the problem of depression during pregnancy and provide patients and physicians and alternative to antidepressants† (Manber, 2010). As acupuncture has become popular among western cultures, other configurations of spiritual healing have surfaced, for example meditation and yoga. Through mediation, Siddhartha Gautama, otherwise known as Buddha, was the first person to experience full spiritual enlightenment, primarily due to the deliberate techniques applied. Several ways that meditation can be performed come in everyday tasks such as reading, walking, swimming, and working out. â€Å"From meditation we learn to observe the sensation in the body, which are certainly related to the mind† (Fisher, 2003). Yoga is another practice that the spiritual seeker uses today in meeting the goal to receive purity, wisdom, and peacefulness of mind (Fisher, 2003). The influence of Hinduism is apparent throughout western civilizations and societies. The effects that this has had on the lifestyle and beliefs of most modern Indian are clear. One of the main influences that have roots with Hinduism is in the practice of yoga. Yoga has become extremely popular in the west in the last several decades. Through deep breathing and mediation techniques, the exercise brings a deeper meaning within one’s self. Yoga mediation is not a separate component, but rather a distinct application of meditation. Aside from relaxing and clearing ones thoughts, there is a popular belief that yoga is an all encompassing tool to become physically fit when in fact, this is hardly the case. Yoga meditation is a complete process to â€Å"finding oneself. † Hindu belief in practicing yoga is predestined to guide one to absolute, pure, and eternal bliss, therefore, allowing a person to become wise, wholesome, and peaceful. The practice is one of six schools of Hindu philosophy, in which, there can be found, 196 different sutras of yoga. Each one has different forms of attaining balance, purity, wisdom, and eventually spiritual enlightenment, the essential goal. The first of many types of yoga begins with Raja Yoga. This form of yoga deals mainly with the cleansing of the mind, and is designed to build, develop and sustain a strong mental state through discipline and purification. The way to maintain this state is to have superior health, mental, physical strength and stamina. Furthermore, yoga with such virtuous beliefs, may prove that a pure lifestyle will help in attaining this state of being. Some of the methods used are through abstaining from any influences that would detract from living a pure life such as intoxicant, while also practicing celibacy. Another significant component of yoga is jnana yoga. jnana yoga cultivates four behaviors toward reaching the development of spiritual deliverance. The first is viveka, the ability to understand what is definite and eternal, and what is temporary. Another element of jnana yoga is vairagya. This ritual is intended to acquire an ability to remove oneself from that which is temporary, therefore preparing for the eternal life. The third state of jnana is shad-sampat, in which a person is in full control of his or her mind, a perfect state of concentration and calmness. The fourth state is mumukshutva, a condition that releases a person from his or her temporary state and allows freedom into the eternal state of being. Each of the four sections of Jnana is a preparation toward eternal bliss, and in the end, desiring to reach nirvana. An additional, more precise version of yoga, is Karma, a belief in actions. The meaning of Karma is to do and have done, seeking to have a person behave and act in way that brings one closer to one’s duty, which is to act in an unselfish manner, and to bring peace, calmness and tranquility, with every action one takes. The fourth type of yoga is Bhakti, an instrument of yoga that brings a person closer to God. Within this Practice are nine principles that help a person achieve this state. Although there are various types of yoga, they all parallel each other with the goal of helping to bring a person closer to a divine state with his or her God. Each of the diverse practices of yoga described is a part of modern India, and the influences from Hinduism are apparent in each one. The importance of yoga and Hinduism in India is a large part that is accepted by the society in accordance with the belief system. The following of Yoga is not only practiced in India, but has also brought the attention to many westerner civilizations. Yoga is not a religion, but more as a means of overcoming the hectic demands of family, work, and life. Practicing yoga gives mental balance as well as a means to optimize health and well being. The effects of yoga and meditation have been proven, and positive results in aiding and nurturing the treatment of learning disabilities, nursing homes, and treatment of alcoholism, well documented. This rich culture of ancient Hinduism has had many historical changes, challenges, and an influence is currently seen on a global scale. Zen Buddhism migrated to the United States around the 19th century. Since then, the religion has adapted to the western way of life, and has helped to evolve the religion. â€Å"As Westerners themselves are taking strong interest in Buddhism, those who have grown up as Buddhist are reassessing their religion and finding new depths in it† (Fisher, 2003, p. 182). Buddhist monasteries and retreats have emerged all throughout the United States. From the 19th century, Buddhism has helped many American’s learn to function as valued members in society by following the meditation and Zen teachings of the religion. â€Å"Buddhism gained a foothold among a significant number of Western intellectuals and particularly during the 1960s and early ‘70s among young people seeking new forms of religious experience and expression† (Britannica, p. 2 ). Although the religion thrived during the 60s and 70s, the active Buddhist today is no longer the young, free loving individuals seen in the past. Most modern day believers include parents, and families. Parents can bring their children to daycare at the same time as the parents go to rooms to chant and meditate. â€Å"As more Buddhist mediation centers make their homes in the suburbs, reflecting the spread of that ancient religion throughout the United States, many are adapting to American ways† (Orr, ’98, p. 2). Buddhists of today can go to retreats for weekend sessions or year long-hiatus. These retreats are not vacations because the religion is taken seriously among most practicing Americans. Some may credit Japanese scholar D. T Suzuki (1870-1966) for bringing Buddhism to the United States, although others say it was due in part to the Chinese conquest in Tibet around 1959. Either way, there are many temples that began construction by Tibetan monks that came to the United States for refuge. â€Å"A number of the highest Tibetan lamas, forced out of Tibet, have established spiritual communities in the United States, complete with altars full of sacred Tibetan artifacts† (Fisher, 2003 p. 178). However, along with the sacred artifacts come some differences. Most Buddhist temples do not have weekly services, but in the US, services are typically held on Sundays. A Buddhist service is normally performed in the Japanese or Chinese language, but in the US the services are predominately conducted in English. The leaders of the US temples still follow the traditional teachings, but customize it to reach out to more people in the United States. In modern day communist China, religion is viewed much differently from most places in society today. Shortly after becoming a communist state, many religions, religious practices, and texts were destroyed and suppressed. In fact, most Taoism and Buddhism temples and texts were destroyed in China during the 1960s and 70s (Fisher, 2003). Since then China has become more westernized and recently have adopted a free market economy changing much of China’s communist ways including some religious ideals. China has even declared Taoism and Buddhist temples as historical sites and promotes building of new temples. Although this move by the government was made to promote tourism alone (Fisher, 2003). Religion today is still kept in hiding and many traditions are discouraged. Any new religion is seen as a treat to the state and is quickly suppressed, sometimes violently. After communist China titled Confucianism as an old way and discarded it from society, parts of Confucianism are now being re-introduced back into everyday life. China was once known as one of the safest, criminal free countries in the world (Fisher, 2003). From the time when China opened its doors to the western society and to a free market, criminal activities began to rise. No longer were communist ideals keeping people from committing such crimes. The government therefore, began to bring back teachings of Confucianism to schools and society for morale and ethical purposes, to help control such criminal behaviors. The teachings of being the best person possible and the best person to society, teachings of social harmony, and a personal sense of the meaning of life started to become very popular among communist Chinese society. China has even tried to fuse both the ideas of capitalism and Confucian together to make a â€Å"Capitalist Confucianism† (Fisher, 2003). Of course, even events such as recognizing Confusion’s birthday was re-introduced for economic reasons. The government does keep all religious aspects of Confucianism at bay, along with the idea of free thought. Though, many intellectuals and scholars are trying to fight for freedom of thought. They argue free thought would help improve the economy even more at this time while there is a free market. Even religious practices such as meditation are starting to make a comeback in modern day communist China. Meditation is seen as a spiritual practice for people who follow Taoism and Buddhism in China and also seen as a practice to relieve stress and to relax much like it is seen in western society for others. Since 1995 there have been many experiments on the benefits of meditation in China. Particularly types of meditation known as integrative body–mind training (IBMT) created in the 1990s have been the focus of these studies. IBMT is a type of meditation that teaches a person about a state of calm and focus without the spiritual side of meditation. This type of meditation is said to improve emotional and cognitive performance and social behavior (Posner, 2007). Recent studies have proven that IBMT not only helps improve one’s focus and performance, but also helps a person deal with stress, tension, anger, depression, and fatigue. It also improved those people’s energy levels and made those same people have a more positive outlook on a day-to-day basis. This all come from just a five day course, two hours a day, of IBMT group practices. So meditation in Chinese culture is not only seen to help benefit one’s mental part of life, but also helps make a person become a better person too him or herself and society both mentally and physically. With the resonating effects of eastern religion throughout the western world, social and political lives have been influenced in a variety of ways. A general open-mindness for allowing more opportunities for spiritual growth is becoming an ever-changing cause for overcoming overly rational and extreme traditions of the many religious belief systems in existence today. The availability of technology has also become instrumental in exploration of other belief systems, therefore making them within easier reach for adaptation, offering combined religious values and rituals into one belief system. With such ease of exploration, courtesy of the Internet and widespread mobility, the range of information can enable seekers to learn about other religious traditions, therefore providing diverse individual religious expression (Guarino, 2009). Some Christian leaders however, worry that there may an increase in distractions from worshiping their true path of faith, therefore diluting Christian doctrines. Regardless of ancestral belief systems or modern paradigm paralysis, the mixtures of religions and cultures will continue the spread into western civilizations and societies

Globalisation essays

Globalisation essays In the past few years, one of the most controversial economic issues has been global free trade. The proponents claim that nations engaged in open trade would experience a great deal of economic growth. Opponents think that giving foreign countries unrestricted access to American markets will cause a decrease in the number of American jobs, and will pose a threat to American sovereignty. It is the opinion of this writer that the latter is correct. The problem with global free trade is really fourfold. The first and foremost problem with such measures is, as stated above, the threat posed to American sovereignty. All free trade agreements set up international bureaucracies to govern the participants; to ensure that all parties comply with the terms of the agreement. Vice President Gore tried to allay the concerns of the opponents of GATT by claiming that the World Trade Organization would hold no authority over the U.S. He claimed that we would only be bound by those rules which we agree to and no others. However, in his very next breath, he claimed that other countries could be forced to comply with their "international trade obligations" (Gore). Clearly, this is a complete contradiction. No contry, except perhaps the U.S., would agree to so obvious a double standard. Newt Gingrich is at the opposite end of the political spectrum from the Vice-President. Of GATT, he once said, "... we need to be honest about the fact that we are transferring from the United States at a practical level significant authority to a new organization... I would feel better if the people who favor this would just be honest about the scale of change." ("How Can") However, despite his own concerns, and the victory he was handing his political opponents, he publicly supported and voted for GATT. Self-flagellation seems to be a hobby of these people. The second problem deals with the market size. How does the size of the market in the U.S. compare with ...

Free Essays on Nietzsche, Schopenauer And Faust

â€Å"Enter: Philosopher, and lo! He proves to you it must be so†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Faust: 1928-29) Can Faust, pre and post Mephistopheles, be seen in an either Nietzschean or Schopenhauerian light? Introduction. This piece of work grew out of reading chapters four and five of Walter Kaufmann’s book The Owl and the Nightingale. These chapters deal largely with Goethe and his relation to Faust and Faust’s redemption; the following two quotes are largely responsible for the enquiry: â€Å"†¦Schopenhauer found the quintessence of human nature-indeed, of the universe-in Faust. His metaphysical conception of the ultimate reality as relentless striving, blind will may be considered a cosmic projection of Faust’s ceaseless aspiration.† (Kaufmann p54, 1959) And â€Å"†¦the clue to Faust’s redemption should be found in Goethe’s faith and not in Faust’s moral merits.† (Kaufmann p68 1959) Kaufmann believes Goethe’s faith to be that, concurrent with his anti-otherworldliness, striving in life is the only redemption we have. This prompts a dissonance between equating Faustian striving with a Schopenhauerian position, whilst trying to equate Faust’s redemption with his continuing striving. To be fair to Kaufmann, none of his argument turns on the truth or falsehood of this dissonance, yet nevertheless it remains the notion that sparked this particular enquiry. Prompted originally by this, the paper expands the enquiry to examine Faust’s position both pre and post Mephistopheles, comparing his position first with Schopenhauer and then with the early Nietzsche (a la Birth of Tragedy). The structure is roughly as follows. The first part begins by delineating Faust’s position as we find at the start of the text. The despairing state that we find him in is given first a Schopenhauerian reading and then a Nietzschean one. The Nietzschean reading is longer and deals with Faust as an incarnation of Socratism (leading to nihi... Free Essays on Nietzsche, Schopenauer And Faust Free Essays on Nietzsche, Schopenauer And Faust â€Å"Enter: Philosopher, and lo! He proves to you it must be so†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Faust: 1928-29) Can Faust, pre and post Mephistopheles, be seen in an either Nietzschean or Schopenhauerian light? Introduction. This piece of work grew out of reading chapters four and five of Walter Kaufmann’s book The Owl and the Nightingale. These chapters deal largely with Goethe and his relation to Faust and Faust’s redemption; the following two quotes are largely responsible for the enquiry: â€Å"†¦Schopenhauer found the quintessence of human nature-indeed, of the universe-in Faust. His metaphysical conception of the ultimate reality as relentless striving, blind will may be considered a cosmic projection of Faust’s ceaseless aspiration.† (Kaufmann p54, 1959) And â€Å"†¦the clue to Faust’s redemption should be found in Goethe’s faith and not in Faust’s moral merits.† (Kaufmann p68 1959) Kaufmann believes Goethe’s faith to be that, concurrent with his anti-otherworldliness, striving in life is the only redemption we have. This prompts a dissonance between equating Faustian striving with a Schopenhauerian position, whilst trying to equate Faust’s redemption with his continuing striving. To be fair to Kaufmann, none of his argument turns on the truth or falsehood of this dissonance, yet nevertheless it remains the notion that sparked this particular enquiry. Prompted originally by this, the paper expands the enquiry to examine Faust’s position both pre and post Mephistopheles, comparing his position first with Schopenhauer and then with the early Nietzsche (a la Birth of Tragedy). The structure is roughly as follows. The first part begins by delineating Faust’s position as we find at the start of the text. The despairing state that we find him in is given first a Schopenhauerian reading and then a Nietzschean one. The Nietzschean reading is longer and deals with Faust as an incarnation of Socratism (leading to nihi...

Commands and Mandates

Commands and Mandates Commands and Mandates Commands and Mandates By Mark Nichol Several words pertaining to authority or obligation display their kinship with the word element mand. This post lists and defines those terms. The Latin verb mandare, meaning â€Å"order,† is perhaps most commonly represented in command, which primarily means â€Å"exercise or have authority.† Other meanings include â€Å"have dominance or influence over,† â€Å"have at one’s disposal,† or â€Å"overlook† (as in reference to a mountain or hill that commands a location of lower elevation). As a noun, command pertains to an order or signal given, to authority, control, dominance, facility, or mastery, to the act of commanding or the position of a military authority, or to the scope of such an authority, including a specific US Air Force unit. A commander (also often referred to as a commanding officer) is an officer of any rank in a military, law enforcement, or other organizational structure who has authority over a particular unit; in some countries, as in the United States, the head of state is also the commander in chief of its armed forces. Commander is also a specific military or law enforcement rank independent of its generic use, as is the rank of lieutenant commander. To commend (literally, â€Å"entrust with,† from the â€Å"entrust† sense of mandare) is to endorse, entrust, or praise, though recommend is often used for the first sense. Behavior that is praiseworthy is commendable, and statement of praise is a commendation. The idioms â€Å"commends itself to† and â€Å"have much to commend it† are formal language for â€Å"is liked and approved† and â€Å"is good in many ways,† respectively. To countermand is to reverse an order, and as a noun the word refers to such a reversal. To demand is to claim, require, or summon, or to express an expectation (as in â€Å"Courtesy demands an acknowledgment of the gesture†). The noun demand refers to something claimed or required, to the notion of a desire or want for something or the quantity of something desired or wanted (as in the expression â€Å"supply and demand†), to a need or to being needed or wanted (as in â€Å"As a speaker, she is in great demand†), or to expectations (as in â€Å"the demands of the job†). The phrase â€Å"on demand† means â€Å"when asked for† or â€Å"when needed.† To remand is to give over (as in returning a case to trial or a criminal suspect to custody) or send back; a remand is such an action. A mandate is an authorization or command, though it is often used in a political sense to suggest that an election victory or passage of a legislative act validates a certain ideology or policy. It also refers to a conquered territory granted to a particular country, or to an authorization for such a grant. To mandate is to require or to administer a mandate, and something mandatory is required (or might pertain to the granting of territory). The adjective is not to be confused with the legal term mandatary, which refers to a person given authority to transact business for another person. Another obscure legal term derived from mandare is mandamus, which refers to a document issued by a court of law that commands that an act or duty be undertaken or performed. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What Does [sic] Mean?Confused Words #3: Lose, Loose, LossWhat is an Anagram?

A Brief for a financial case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

A Brief for a financial case - Essay Example o partners together with a team of experienced professionals, whom they hired, build a portfolio of investments that provided investors with a unique risk profile and substantial long-term returns (Bruner, p.672). Palamon’s investment strategy was to make bridge investments in companies that were in a process of moving from small, private ownership to the public capital markets. Palamon focused broadly on small to mid-sized European businesses in which it aimed to acquire control. To achieve its investment strategy of transforming from private to public ownership, Palamon required both funding and management ability. Palamon complemented their financial investments with advisory services to increase the possibility that the portfolio companies would successfully make it to the public markets. TeamSystem provided an excellent investment opportunity, but there were various challenges and risks facing the company, and Elson had to evaluate the viability of the investment in TeamSystem (Bruner, p.673). As Bruner, p.674, notes that Palamon investment process started with the development of an investment thesis taking into consideration the changes in the market, which included trade liberalization, new technology, and deregulations among others. Palamon looked for attractive investment opportunities using various ways. Palamon deal negotiations enclosed many issues including the management, the board composition and price of products of the company. In the investment process, the company looked for exit alternatives after they have fulfilled their objectives. Palamon identified an investment opportunity in TeamSystem, since the industry in which TeamSystem operated had extreme fragmentation and frequently changing regulations. Elson noted that, for the previous five years, TeamSystem Company had no audited consolidated financial statements. The significant players in the industry where TeamSystem operated were family owned firms which had limited access to global

Spain Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Spain - Research Paper Example Spain is re-known as the land of flamenco and bullfights, blazing heat and dusty landscape churches and castles. Moreover, it is also home to a rich cultural heritage which has been influenced by many people who have conquered Spain over thousands of years ((Lior, and Tara 4) (Faiella 7). The evidence of Spanish culture is visible everywhere, in the ancient ruins and castles that dot the landscape; in the art, music and folk dances enjoyed in different regions; in the festivals, called fiestas celebrated throughout the year and in the languages spoken around the country (Lior, and Tara 4). Undoubtedly, Spain belongs to a select group of developed western democracies- nevertheless, little over three decades ago- Spain was a comparatively shy nation mostly isolated from its European neighbors and ruled by dictatorship- even more than other countries cannot be appreciated without some understanding of its history (Christopher, Bill, and Begona 1). One explanation for the prevalent interest in Spain’s political culture is the remarkably peaceful as well as successful political transition since 1975. From a dictatorial political structure to a contemporary liberal democratic system, a succession of deep changes which have far reaching cultural consequences. Up to 1975, Spain was an abnormality in Europe, the longest as well as last surviving remnant of the military autocracies of the 1930’s. A bare seven years afterward, Spain not only held free elections, parliamentary government and a ratified democratic constitution, nevertheless had established a center left social democrat regime. Spain accomplished this by a blend of modernization as well adaptation of existing establishments as well as creative ideologies such as the substitution of unyielding unitary democratic structure of the Franco autocracy with a quasi-federal constitution producing a structure of autonomous communities which acknowledge the political , economic, as well as cultural diversity of

Early Development and Statehood Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Early Development and Statehood - Research Paper Example The region was also had resources such as fur that were good for trade (Tennessee 359). The political development in Tennessee offered a clear reflection of the experience of political development in the thirteen British colonies. The region was characterized by political upheavals and separations calls. As a result, there was no common political voice of the inhabitants. Moreover, the government of the day was also in disarray and sometimes offered support to some of the colonial masters. As a result, the region was divided based on semi-autonomous government common among thirteen British colonies (Tennessee 360-366). Various conditions in Tennessee prompted its application for statehood in 1795-1796. One of such conditions was the Tennesseans inability to gain political voice in the region (366). As a result, they felt that there would be increased political participation by gaining of statehood. The inhabitants also lacked the kind of protection that was evident from organized form of government. The protection was also once Northern Carolina disowned the six settlements making them vulnerable (Tennessee 366). Moreover, the government under the Article of Confederation was also perceived as weak and hence unable to guarantee security and well-being of the people. The inhabitants also had an established form of self-government and felt that they could now be able to take political matters in their hands. Moreover, there was decreased frontier warfare. The decreased rivalry made it possible for a leader to translate the region into a new state that had structured regime and constitution (Tennesse e 368). The factors made it possible for the application of admission by the congress. In conclusion, it is clear that Tennessee went through a rigorous process before admission into statehood. The process was characterized by

MARKETING STRATEGY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MARKETING STRATEGY - Essay Example The 2008 – 2009 has been one that has been underlined by the adverse effects of the credit crunch. It is at this time that interest rates hit an all time low level. To add to that, the retail customer savings stagnated and in other instances in point of fact more than dwindled. This is a demonstration on how the external environment can adversely affect a business. The credit crunch led to a calamitous fall in the banking image. As a result of these proceedings, retail and investment banking were the biggest causalities. Tough competition in the financial markets also underlies what players in the industry have to navigate through. But the existence of opportunities to grow presents a case for strategising in order to wrest market control or at the minimum remain relevant. The chance to improve does exist, but it all depends on the business leadership. It is for the leadership to take or ignore the opportunities. Growth in higher education is one such opportunity on which the bank should capitalise on. This has been one of the weak points of the bank; failure to expeditiously take up opportunities. Based on these issues, I would propose the diversification strategy in addressing the bank’s developmental agenda. This strategy promises to be the best vehicle for the Central National Bank if it harbours any ambitions of getting out of the mess in which it finds itself. Diversification can be achieved through the initiation of mergers, ventures into provision of new products, an alteration of the bank’s microeconomic policy among other aspects (Beamish and Ashford 2005). From the case study, it is revealed that much consolidation is taking place. This is being done through merging of businesses in the banking industry. A merger gives a company a big advantage because of sharing of several facilities and consequently gaining from the benefits that accrue to economies of large scale

Socrate's Concept of Good and Evil Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Socrate's Concept of Good and Evil - Essay Example Glaucon was not convinced; and he wished to argue with Socrates that apparently, unjust people live a more successful life than the just people. He wanted explanation as to why gods confer power and wealth to the unjust, powerful and evil persons only? Why virtue is not the scale of judgment of the gods to bless people? Why is it so that unjust people appear to have more material gains and lead a happier life than just people? To clarify this, Socrates explained to him that justice may be an individual virtue or virtue of the State. The main aim of explaining what goodness is all about is to lay down the foundation of a State or a Republic where the rulers serve in the interest of their subjects. Being good is a very complex definition as it touches various aspects of the personality, the nature and the consequences of a person. For example, being good in old age; or while doing justice; or while distinguishing between a friend and a foe requires wisdom. He actually strengthened his argument for the major subject of his rhetoric i.e. the welfare of the State. He believed that the primary duty of the rulers of the State was to be good to them. The state should function according to the interests of the subjects- not the rulers.

Are we really running out of oil Research Paper

Are we really running out of oil - Research Paper Example The OECD is made up of about 28 countries as of 2010, including countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Korea, Japan, Canada, Germany, France, and Australia. The European Commission also â€Å"participates† in the work of the IEA as written or reflected in the IEA documents. From the perspective of the IEA, the summary situation is that â€Å"global production will peak one day, but that peak will be determined by factors affecting both supply and demand† (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). IEA data and forecasts indicate that oil demand (excludes demand for biofuels as opposed to fossil fuels), will continue to grow steadily to reach 99 million barrels per day (mb/d) by 2035 or 15 mb/d higher from 2009. In the IEA estimate, all of the net growth will come from non-member of the OECD, about half from China alone. The rise in demand from non-OECD member countries will be mainly driven by demand for transport fuels (IEA, World Energy Outloo k 2010 Executive Summary, 6). Given the estimated rise in demand to 99 million barrels per day by 2035, global oil production will only reach 96 million barrels per day (mb/day), 3 mb/d of which will come from gains in processing efficiency (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). ... ation of Petroleum Exporting (OPEC) countries to rise continuously up to 2035 under the â€Å"New Policies Scenario† (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). The increasing production from OPEC will boost OPEC’s share in total world oil production by about one-half (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). Iraq will account for the largest share in the increase of OPEC oil output, â€Å"commensurate with its large resource base† (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). The statements from the IEA suggest that the immediate decreases in output in oil production will be coming from the non-OPEC countries rather than from the OPEC countries. In clarifying what it means by â€Å"global production will peak one day, but that peak will be determined by factors affecting both supply and demand,† the IEA clarified that in the â€Å"New Policies† scenario, total world production does not peak before 2035 (although it will be â€Å"close to doing so†). However, according to the IEA, production can peak at 86 mb/d just before 2020 because of weaker demand that falls briskly thereafter because of lower prices (World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). The scenario of a weak demand can come about because of environmental concerns related to global warming. In summary, the IEA said that â€Å"if governments act more vigorously than currently planned to encourage more efficient use of oil and development of alternatives, then demand for oil might begin to ease soon and, as a result, we might see a fairly early peak in oil production† (World Energy Outlook 2010 Executive Summary, 6). The IEA strongly emphasized that the early peak in this scenario will not be caused by resource constraints but by dwindling demand and price realignments

Socrate's Concept of Good and Evil Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Socrate's Concept of Good and Evil - Essay Example Glaucon was not convinced; and he wished to argue with Socrates that apparently, unjust people live a more successful life than the just people. He wanted explanation as to why gods confer power and wealth to the unjust, powerful and evil persons only? Why virtue is not the scale of judgment of the gods to bless people? Why is it so that unjust people appear to have more material gains and lead a happier life than just people? To clarify this, Socrates explained to him that justice may be an individual virtue or virtue of the State. The main aim of explaining what goodness is all about is to lay down the foundation of a State or a Republic where the rulers serve in the interest of their subjects. Being good is a very complex definition as it touches various aspects of the personality, the nature and the consequences of a person. For example, being good in old age; or while doing justice; or while distinguishing between a friend and a foe requires wisdom. He actually strengthened his argument for the major subject of his rhetoric i.e. the welfare of the State. He believed that the primary duty of the rulers of the State was to be good to them. The state should function according to the interests of the subjects- not the rulers.

Political philosophy Essay Example for Free

Political philosophy Essay The concept of social contract theory is that in the beginning man lived in the state of nature. They had no government and there was no law to regulate them. There were hardships and oppression on the sections of the society. To overcome from these hardships they entered into two agreements which are:- 1. ?Pactum Unionis? ; and 2. ?Pactum Subjectionis?. By the first pact of unionis, people sought protection of their lives and property. As, a result of it a society was formed where people undertook to respect each other and live in peace and harmony. By the second pact of subjectionis, people united together and pledged to obey an authority and surrendered the whole or part of their freedom and rights to an authority. The authority guaranteed everyone protection of life, property and to a certain extent liberty. Thus, they must agree to establish society by collectively and reciprocally renouncing the rights they had against one another in the State of Nature and they must imbue some one person or assembly of persons with the authority and power to enforce the initial contract. In other words, to ensure their escape from the State of Nature, they must both agree to live together under common laws, and create an enforcement mechanism for the social contract and the laws that constitute it. Thus, the authority or the government or the sovereign or the state came into being because of the two agreements. Analysis of the theory of Social Contract by Thomas Hobbes ? Thomas Hobbes theory of Social Contract appeared for the first time in Leviathan published in the year 1651 during the Civil War in Britain. Thomas Hobbes? legal theory is based on ? Social contract?. According to him, prior to Social Contract, man lived in the State of Nature. Man? s life in the State of NATURE was one of fear and selfishness. Man lived in chaotic condition of constant fear. Life in the State of Nature was ? solitary? , ? poor? , ? nasty? , ? brutish? , and ? short?. ? Man has a natural desire for security and order. In order to secure self- protection and self-preservation, and to avoid misery and pain, man entered Page 2 of 7 into a contract. This idea of self-preservation and self-protection are inherent in man? s nature and in order to achieve this, they voluntarily surrendered all their rights and freedoms to some authority by this contract who must command obedience. As a result of this contract, the mightiest authority is to protect and preserve their lives and property. This led to the emergence of the institution of the ? ruler? or ? monarch? , who shall be the absolute head. Subjects had no rights against the absolute authority or the sovereign and he is to be obeyed in all situations however bad or unworthy he might be. However, Hobbes placed moral obligations on the sovereign who shall be bound by natural law. ? Hence, it can be deduced that, Hobbes was the supporter of absolutism. In the opinion of Hobbes, ? law is dependent upon the sanction of the sovereign and the Government without sword are but words and of no strength to secure a man at all?. He therefore, reiterated that civil law is the real law because it is commanded and enforced by the sovereign. Thus, he upheld the principle of ? Might is always Right?. ? Hobbes thus infers from his mechanistic theory of human nature that humans are necessarily and exclusively self-interested. All men pursue only what they perceive to be in their own individually considered best interests. They respond mechanistically by being drawn to that which they desire and repelled by that to which they are averse. In addition to being exclusively self-interested, Hobbes also argues that human beings are reasonable. They have in them the rational capacity to pursue their desires as efficiently and maximally as possible. From these premises of human nature, Hobbes goes on to construct a provocative and compelling argument for which they ought to be willing to submit themselves to political authority. He did this by imagining persons in a situation prior to the establishment of society, the State of Nature. ? Hobbes impels subjects to surrender all their rights and vest all liberties in the sovereign for preservation of peace, life and prosperity of the subjects. It is in this way the natural law became a moral guide or directive to the sovereign for preservation of the natural rights of the subjects. For Hobbes all law is dependent upon the sanction of the sovereign. All real law is civil law, the law commanded and Page 3 of 7 enforced by the sovereign and are brought into the world for nothing else but to limit the natural liberty of particular men, in such a manner, as they might not hurt but to assist one another and join together against a common enemy. He advocated for an established order. Hence, Individualism, materialism, utilitarianism and absolutions are inter-woven in the theory of Hobbes. Analysis of the theory of Social Contract by John Locke ? John Locke theory of Social Contract is different than that of Hobbes. According to him, man lived in the State of Nature, but his concept of the State of Nature is different as contemplated by Hobbesian theory. Locke? s view about the state of nature is not as miserable as that of Hobbes. It was reasonably good and enjoyable, but the property was not secure. He considered State of Nature as a ? Golden Age?. It was a state of ? peace, goodwill, mutual assistance, and preservation?. In that state of nature, men had all the rights which nature could give them. Locke justifies this by saying that in the State of Nature, the natural condition of mankind was a state of perfect and complete liberty to conduct one? s life as one best sees fit. It was free from the interference of others. In that state of nature, all were equal and independent. This does not mean, however, that it was a state of license. It was one not free to do anything at all one pleases, or even anything that one judges to be in one? s interest. The State of Nature, although a state wherein there was no civil authority or government to punish people for transgressions against laws, was not a state without morality. The State of Nature was pre-political, but it was not pre- moral. Persons are assumed to be equal to one another in such a state, and therefore equally capable of discovering and being bound by the Law of Nature. So, the State   Nature was a ? state of liberty? , where persons are free to pursue their own interests and plans, free from interference and, because of the Law of Nature and the restrictions that it imposes upon persons, it is relatively peaceful. ? Property plays an essential role in Locke? s argument for civil government and the contract that establishes it. According to Locke, private property is created when a person mixes his labour with the raw materials of nature. Given the implications of the Law of Nature, there are limits as to how much property one can own: one is not Page 4 of 7allowed to take so more from nature than oneself can use, thereby leaving others without enough for themselves, because nature is given to all of mankind for its common subsistence. One cannot take more than his own fair share. Property is the linchpin of Locke? s argument for the social contract and civil government because it is the protection of their property, including their property in their own bodies, that men seek when they decide to abandon the State of Nature. ? John Locke considered property in the State of Nature as insecure because of three conditions; they are:- 1. Absence of established law; 2. Absence of impartial Judge; and 3. Absence of natural power to execute natural laws. ? Thus, man in the State of Nature felt need to protect their property and for the purpose of protection of their property, men entered into the ? Social Contract?. Under the contract, man did not surrender all their rights to one single individual, but they surrendered only the right to preserve / maintain order and enforce the law of nature. The individual retained with them the other rights, i. e. , right to life, liberty and estate because these rights were considered natural and inalienable rights of men.? Having created a political society and government through their consent, men then gained three things which they lacked in the State of Nature: laws, judges to adjudicate laws, and the executive power necessary to enforce these laws. Each man therefore gives over the power to protect himself and punish transgressors of the Law of Nature to the government that he has created through the compact. ? According to Locke, the purpose of the Government and law is to uphold and protect the natural rights of men. So long as the Government fulfils this purpose, the laws given by it are valid and binding but, when it ceases to fulfil it, then the laws would have no validity and the Government can be thrown out of power. In Lockes view, unlimited sovereignty is contrary to natural law. ? Hence, John Locke advocated the principle of -? a state of liberty; not of license?. Locke advocated a state for the general good of people. He pleaded for a constitutionally limited government. Page 5 of 7 ? Locke, in fact made life, liberty and property, his three cardinal rights, which greatly dominated and influenced the Declaration of American Independence, 1776. Analysis of the theory of Social Contract by Jean Jacques Rousseau ? Jean Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher who gave a new interpretation to the theory of Social Contract in his work The Social Contract and Emile. According to him, social contract is not a historical fact but a hypothetical construction of reason. Prior to the Social Contract, the life in the State of Nature was happy and there was equality among men. As time passed, however, humanity faced certain changes. As the overall population increased, the means by which people could satisfy their needs had to change. People slowly began to live together in small families, and then in small communities. Divisions of labour were introduced, both within and between families, and discoveries and inventions made life easier, giving rise to leisure time. Such leisure time inevitably led people to make comparisons between themselves and others, resulting in public values, leading to shame and envy, pride and contempt. Most importantly however, according to Rousseau, was the invention of private property, which constituted the pivotal moment in humanity? s evolution out of a simple, pure state into one, characterized by greed, competition, vanity, inequality, and vice. For Rousseau the invention of property constitutes humanity? s ? fall from grace? out of the State of Nature. For this purpose, they surrendered their rights not to a single individual but to the community as a whole which Rousseau termed as ? general will?. ? According to Rousseau, the original ? freedom, happiness, equality and liberty? which existed in primitive societies prior to the social contract was lost in the modern civilisation. Through Social Contract, a new form of social organisation- the state was formed to assure and guarantee rights, liberties freedom and equality. The essence of the Rousseau? s theory of General Will is that State and Law were the product of General Will of the people. State and the Laws are made by it and if the government and laws do not conform to ? general will? , they would be discarded. While the individual parts with his natural rights, in return he gets civil liberties such as freedom of speech, equality, assembly, etc. Page 6 of 7 ? The ? General Will? , therefore, for all purposes, was the will of majority citizens to which blind obedience was to be given. The majority was accepted on the belief that majority view is right than minority view. Each individual is not subject to any other individual but to the ? general will? and to obey this is to obey himself. His sovereignty is infallible, indivisible, unrepresentable and illimitable. ? Thus, Rousseau favoured peoples sovereignty. His natural law theory is confined to the freedom and liberty of the individual. For him, State, law, sovereignty, general will, etc. are interchangeable terms. Rousseau? s theory inspired French and American revolutions and given impetus to nationalism. He based his theory of social contract on the principle of ? Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains?. COMPARISION OF THE THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT OF THOMAS HOBBES, JOHN LOCKE AND JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 1. Hobbes asserts that without subjection to a common power of their rights and freedoms, men are necessarily at war. Locke and Rousseau, on the contrary, set forth the view that the state exists to preserve and protect the natural rights of its citizens. When governments fail in that task, citizens have the right and sometimes the duty to withdraw their support and even to rebel. 2. Hobbes view was that whatever the state does is just. All of society is a direct creation of the state, and a reflection of the will of the ruler. According to Locke, the only important role of the state is to ensure that justice is seen to be done. While Rousseau view is that the State must in all circumstance ensure freedom and liberty of individuals. 3. Hobbes theory of Social Contract supports absolute sovereign without giving any value to individuals, while Locke and Rousseau supports individual than the state or the government. 4. To Hobbes, the sovereign and the government are identical but Rousseau makes a distinction between the two. He rules out a representative form of government. But, Locke does not make any such distinction. Page 7 of 7 5. Rousseau? s view of sovereignty was a compromise between the constitutionalism of Locke and absolutism of Hobbes. CRITICAL APPREHENTION 1. Rousseau propounded that state, law and the government are interchangeable, but this in present senerio is different. Even though government can be overthrown but not the state. A state exists even there is no government. 2. Hobbes concept of absolutism is totally a vague concept in present scenario. Democracy is the need and examples may be taken from Burma and other nations. 3. According to Hobbes, the sovereign should have absolute authority. This is against the rule of law because absolute power in one authority brings arbitrariness. 4. Locke concept of State of nature is vague as any conflict with regard to property always leads to havoc in any society. Hence, there cannot be a society in peace if they have been conflict with regard to property. 5. Locke concept of laissez-faire is not of welfare oriented. Now in present scenario, every state undertake steps to form a welfare state.

Psoriasis Case Study

Psoriasis Case Study Case Study P.D. a twenty-three-year-old female presents with symptoms of psoriasis. She has several thick scaly, well defined, erythematous plaques, which are silvery in color. The patient reports that she has just returned from a twelve-day trip to southern Louisiana to work the ecosystem as part of her education as an environmental engineer. During the trip, she had significant solar exposure, although she wore sunscreen. The expanded and prominent plaques cover her elbows and thighs, and there is a patch on her scalp. Her lesions cover about fifteen percent of her body. She occasionally applies moisturizing lotion or witch hazel if it becomes too irritating. All other body systems are normal. Patient states â€Å"I have always had some rashes, although usually not this bad.† Past Medical History â€Å"Some rashes, otherwise non-contributory Social History Recent trip to southern Louisiana for ecosystem work related to studies as an environmental engineer. Physical Examination Several thick scaly, well define, erythematous plagues, silver in color. Expanded plague and prominent plagues cover elbows and thighs, with an area on the scalp. Plague coverage is fifteen percent of the body. Significant sun exposure All other body systems are within normal limits. Reviewing the symptoms, the primary diagnosis is plague psoriasis. Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the skin in which the production of epidermal cells occurs at a rate that is faster than normal. The cells in the basal layer of the skin divide too quickly, and the newly formed cells move rapidly to the skin surface and become evident as profuse scales or plagues of epidermal tissue. The psoriatic epidermal cell may travel from the basal cell layer to the stratum corneum and be cast off in three to four days, which is in sharp contrast to the normal twenty-six to twenty-eight days. As a result of the increased number of basal cells and rapid cell passage, the normal events of cell maturation and growth cannot take place. This abnormal process does not allow the formation of the protective layers of the skin (PubMed Health, 2012). Psoriasis, one of the most common skin diseases, affects approximately two percent of the population. There appears to be a hereditary defect that causes overpopulation of keratin. The primary defect is unknown. A combination of specific genetic makeup and environmental stimuli may trigger the onset of the disease. There is evidence that the cell proliferation is mediated by the immune system. Periods of emotional stress and anxiety aggravate the condition, and trauma, infections, and seasonal and hormonal changes are trigger factors. The onset may occur at any age, but is most common between the ages of ten and thirty-five years. Psoriasis has a tendency to improve and then recur throughout life (PubMed Health, 2012). The clinical manifestation The lesions appear as red, raised patches of skin covered with silvery scales. The scaly patches are formed by the buildup of living and dead skin that results from the vast increase in the rate of skin-cell growth and turnover. If the scales are scraped away, the dark red base of the lesion is exposed, producing multiple bleeding points. These patches are not moist and may or may not itch. The lesions may remain small, giving rise to the term â€Å"guttate psoriasis. Usually, the lesions enlarge slowly, but after many months they coalesce, forming extensive irregular shaped patches (PubMed Health, 2012). Psoriasis may range from a cosmetic source of annoyance to a physically disabling and disfiguring affliction. Particular sites of the body tend to be affected by this ailment; they include the scalp, the area over the elbows and knees, the lower part of the back, and the genitalia. Psoriasis also appears on the extensor surfaces of the arms and legs, on the scalp and ears, and over the sacrum and intergluteal fold. Bilateral symmetry is a feature of Psoriasis (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The disease may be associated with arthritis of multiple joints, causing crippling disability. The relationship between arthritis and psoriasis is not understood. Another complication is an exfoliative psoritic state in which the disease progresses to involve the total body surface (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Management The goals of management are to reduce the rapid turnover of the epidermis and to promote resolution of the psoriatic lesions. Thus, the goal is limited to control of the problem, because there is no cure (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The therapeutic approach should be one that the patient understands; it should be cosmetically acceptable and not too disruptive of life-style. It will involve a commitment of time and effort by the patient. First, any precipitating or aggravating factors are removed. Then as assessment is made of life-style, since psoriasis is significantly affected by stress. The patient must also be advised that treatment of severe psoriasis can be time-consuming, expensive, and esthetically unappealing at times. Treatment will begin with Vectical ointment (calcitriol) 3mcg/g, topical use only. Apply twice daily, once in the morning and once in the evening, the maximum weekly dose should not exceed 200 gram (National Institute of Health, 2012). Treatment will extend to eight weeks, with follow up in office at that time. Each gram contains 3 micrograms of calcitriol. Vectical should not be applied to the face, eyes, or lips. It should be used with caution in patients receiving medications known to increase calcium serum levels, such as calcium supplements, vitamin D supplements, and thiazide diuretics. Vectical may cause sunburn more easily, avoid the sun, sunlamps, or tanning beds while using Vectical ointment. Use a sunscreen or wear protective clothing when having to be outside for more than a short time (National Institute of Health, 2012). Vectical ointment is indicated for the topical treatment of mild to moderate plague psoriasis in adults eighteen years and older. Calcitriol (Vectical) contains 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, the hormone active form of vitamin D3. Calcitriol 3-mcg/g ointment is similar in efficacy to calcipotriene 0.005-% ointment for the treatment of plague type psoriasis on the body and is better tolerated in intertriginous and sensitive areas of the skin (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Vectical contains calcitriol, which studies have shown to be fetotoxic, and should be used in pregnancy only if the potential benefits justify the potential risk to the fetus. It is not known if calcitriol is excreted in human milk. Because many drugs are excreted in human milk, caution should be exercised when Vectical ointment is used by nursing women. If the patient thinks she may be pregnant, they will need to discuss the benefits and risks of using Vectical ointment while pregnant (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2 012). Patient Education Use only as directed, for external use only. Vectical is to be applied only to areas of skin affected by psoriasis. Vectical should be gently rubbed into the skin so that no medication remains visible. As you may sunburn more easily, avoid the sun, sunlamps, or suntan beds/booths while using Vectical ointment. Use a sunscreen with an SPF of 30 or greater; wear protective clothing when you must be outside for more than a short time (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). All medications may cause side effects, but many have no, or minor, side effects. Minor skin discomfort at the application site is the most common side effect of Vectical ointment. Notify the medical provider if these side effects occur; rash, hives, itching, difficulty breathing, chest tightness, swelling of the face, mouth or lips, new or worsening skin irritation ( blistering, flushing, burning, severe discomfort, or redness), symptoms of hypercalcemia (weakness, nausea, confusion, constipation, excessive thirst, fast, slow or irregular heartbeat) (National Institute of Health, 2012). Treatment Plan Vectical (calcitriol) 3mcg/g, 100 G tube; twice daily. Follow up appointment in eight weeks. Laboratory testing to include calcium serum levels and hCG testing now and at followup visit. Additional laboratory testing to include skin biopsy for fungal infection. Patient education on use and precautions of medications, and supplements. Referral to psoriasis support group for emotional support and education. Differential Diagnosis Review of symptoms and history of working in the environment leads to questioning if the patient presentation is a case of Tine Corporis and Tina Capitis. As the patient was in an environmental area that is subject to large fungal growth and exposure to a wet climate increases the risks for fungal infestation, this is the differential diagnosis (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Tina capitis is a contagious fungal infection of the hair shafts. Microsporum and Trichophyton species are dermatophytes that infect hair. Clinically, one or several round patches of redness and scaling are present. Tinea Corporis or Tina circinata begins as an erythematous macule advancing to rings of vesicles with central clearing. The lesions appear in clusters, usually on exposed areas of the body. These may extend to the scalp, hair, or nails. As a rule, there is an elevated border consisting of small papules or vesicles. Coalescence of individual rings may result in large patches with bizarre scalloped borders. Use of a woods lamp will help in the diagnosis. The fungal infection will glow under the light. Skin biopsy will confirm the presence of fungal infestation (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). References Brunton, L., Chabner, B., Knollman, B. (2011). Goodman Gilmans: The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Katzung, B., Mastes, S., Trevor, A. (2012). Basic Clinical Pharmacology (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. National Institute of Health. (2012, January). Vectical ointment. Retrieved from U.S. National Library of Medicine: http://www.dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/druginfo.cfm PubMed Health. (2012, November). Psoriasis. Retrieved from PubMed Health: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001470