Identifying Ethical Differences in Culture Essay

Identifying Ethical Differences in Culture - Essay Example In regarding guanxi, it usually outstrips any rules and regulations that run contrary to it. In China guanxi obliges one to defer to a complex system of personal relationships and moral obligations, which may even date back generations, in all aspect of life. This certainly includes business as well. Guanxi places relationships above all other considerations and in business one may be forced to use their position to purchase products from an associate that may in fact be more expensive or of less quality than is available somewhere else. Actions like these, if detected by a company from one of its staff would usually be grounds for dismissal as well as legal action in many cases. This disparity between worlds is due to one of the major cultural differences between the U.S. and China. In the US business and even personal relationships are usually transactional, that is there is a give and take that is considered an equitable exchange between two parties. This usually holds for both bu siness entities as well as personal relationships. Chinese cultural is far more relationally oriented and is often guided by complex associations of family and friends over many generations. Based essentially upon honor and respect, it is far more important to maintain good relationships under the rules of guanxi than it is to do what is best for your company. This is of course considered treason in the U.S., while in China it is accepted and tolerated by most organizations. Although the law does limit it to some extent and the excessive.

Strategy management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Strategy management - Essay Example According to Yip, internationalization is driven by market, cost, government and competitive drivers, which influence the level of market competitiveness and success of globalization. In the telecommunication industry, globalization has become a major way of improving sales, market control and performance (Yip, Biscarri & Monti, 2000). Companies such as apple, Samsung and Nokia have entered markets in different parts of the globe including emerging and developed countries. Market driver remains the major motivation for globalization by most of these companies as it seeks to improve its presence, perception and performance in the market. Market drivers describe the needs and preferences of the customers, the existence of global demand among others (Lal & Strachan, 2007). Telecommunication industry is one of the most dynamic sector in which consumer loyalty is not assured and changes in taste and preferences affect the demand of different products. Within the telecommunication industry, products such as mobile phones, smartphones and computers perform based on how they satisfy the needs of the market. Companies such as Samsung and apple have upped the competition in the telecommunication industry, developing a strong market control as compared to other companies. The companies in demand in Africa, Asia and other parts of the world due to the strong consumer preference that has emerged due to the sleek designs and consumer centrality adopt Apple products. This has caused a need for these companies to enter into new markets and fill the void currently within the global market beat the strong competition (Yip, Biscarri & Monti, 2000). Cost drivers include the need to adopt scales economies, improved supply chain and exploitation of country specific cultural differences across the globe. To achieve the economies of scales, businesses cannot continue serving the national or domestic markets. As a result,

Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay

Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay Even though the term colourism, otherwise known as shadeism, has gained popularity in recent years, the concept is deeply rooted in the colonial days of slavery. Defined as a form of  prejudice or  discrimination  in which persons are treated differently based on the social meanings attached to skin color, this light skin versus dark skin issue has had a damaging effect on the psyche of young black Jamaicans today. However, according to Cedric Herring colourism operates in two different ways: interracially and intraracially. Interracial colourism occurs when members of one racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of another racial group. Intraracial colourism occurs when members of a racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of their own race (3). While I will be analysing both forms of colourism, the focus of this thesis will be on intraracial colourism, specifically within the Jamaican community. After the abolition of slavery in Jamaica, the immersion of a middle and lower class was integrated into the hierarchical structure of Jamaica that previously only claimed whites as the elite. As a result, due to the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulattoes-a treatment that allowed them to have an education-, they became the ruling middle class with the then former black slaves turned peasants as the lower class. To make matters worse, the historical and stereotypical depiction of Africans as ugly, stupid and uncivilized and Europeans as pretty, intelligent and superior only served to brainwash black Jamaicans into thinking that they are the inferior race. Thus, the tendency to perceive or behave toward members of a racial category based on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone has resulted in, not only the segregation of a people within a specific ethnic group, but it has also created, amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica, extreme methods through which the they will do anything to attain as many refined European attributes as possible. According to William Lynchs letter The Making of a Slave, his secret to controlling slaves is by pitting them against each other, by exploiting differences such as age and skin color that would, after some time, sow dissension amongst them, one that would last for many years to come. While there has been extensive research and academia founded on the topic of racism within the West Indian context during the colonial period, only a few have examined intraracial skin color hierarchies amongst the black race and even less amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica in the 21st century. It is therefore, the purpose of this study to show how stereotypes and perceptions about light and dark skin signify an inheritance of similar attitudes documented in earlier generations of black Jamaicans, which in turn, sheds light on the ever-present discrimination that continues takes place on a day to day basis in their lives. It is my hope that this study will address the following: Demonstrate the link of Jamaicas colonial past to colourism today Show the medias role toward preference and how it has affected black Jamaicans Explain the extreme measures taken in order to be brown Many historians (Henriques 1953; Norris 1962) have acknowledged the fact that slavery has had adverse psychological effects on Africans (Danieli 394), especially those of a darker complexion. As such, the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulatto slaves (James and Harris 234) has been able to transcend years of black empowerment movements in such a way that it is clearly evident in Jamaicas society today through colourism (Herring 3). According to Carolyn Cooper, the remnants of Jamaicas colonial past are ever present in the social interactions of its people today, no matter the context. Her argument is further supported by Deborah Gabriel (28) who has studied race relations among Jamaicans and attests to the fact that colour prejudice is visible in the societys socio-economic environment. Moreover, Antonio Gramscis cultural hegemony theory, which is explored in the works of Boggs (39), Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez (62), adds another dimension to the analysis of colourism by stating that the superimposition of one culture over another negatively affects their already established social structure. It is common knowledge therefore that the white ideal- through which all analyses of colourism is based- expresses the view that blacks are the inferior race and whites, the superior (Kardiner et. al 315). Even Fanons psychoanalytical theory of racism and the dehumanization of African slaves in the colonial epoch support the idea that white supremacy has led black people to develop an inferiority complex. Yet, despite the call for black unity among the African race advocated by numerous social and political groups such as the Pan-African movements and Rastafarianism (Caravantes 2003), there are still messages being transmitted that stipulate that light skin people are better t han their darker counterparts. Carl Boggs lends aid to this belief through his analysis in the role of mainstream media. His study shows how the elite in society have been able to perpetuate the ideology that whites are the superior race (39). On the other hand, however, Margaret Andersen and Howard Taylor examine the way in which light skin black people are depicted as elite in their own right when compared to their darker counterparts (53). Consequently, the association between white people and light skin people as more intelligent, more beautiful and more civilized can be found numerous media outlets in Jamaica. To add to that theory is the analysis of Buju Bantons song Love me browning by Patricia Mohammed who stated that his song has reinforced and reflected the idea that men value the colour of light skin in women in Jamaica (35). This preference has led to the exacerbation of black womens self-esteem who now take it upon themselves to bleach their skin in an attempt to seem more desirable. According to Natasha Barnes, not only is skin colour used as a handicap to gain social access, it is also seen as a form of economic mobility and stability among the light skin people of Jamaica (*). Therefore, it isnt necessary that black people work as hard as they do to move up the socio-economic ladder because decent job qualifications are not more valuable than the colour of ones skin (Miller, ). However, after having researched the subject for this thesis project, I found that there was an abundance of information based on African American experiences along with the numerous studies which have proven that people with darker skin are subjugated to more prejudice than their lighter skinned counterparts. In fact, very little of the information found related to the theme of colourism as a system of language, internal scripts and external practices that govern the everyday interactions and experiences of young black men and women as it relates to skin tone  [1]  in the contemporary society of Jamaica. While I do agree with many historian sociologists, such as Fernando Henriques and Katrin Norris, who have highlighted the topic of skin politics in Jamaica, I intend to go further by examining the phenomenon of colourism as it relates to present day interactions and experiences. By examining the historical and contemporary significance of skin color, it will be proven that discrimination based on skin color is a present reality that will assume increasing significance in the future as current understandings of race and racial classifications disintegrate.   Furthermore, for the purpose of this thesis I have taken the liberty of looking at numerous primary and secondary sources, such as those written by Marcus Garvey, Dr. Eric Williams, Francis O.C, Anthony Richmond, and David Lowenthal. They have all have given me great insight into historical context of race relations during the colonial period and how black people reacted to this unjust treatment through the various black power movements, especially those executed by Rastafarians. On the other hand, however, due to the fact that this thesis is based on race relations within a specific social group in contemporary Jamaica, many of the research executed had to be done via questionnaires and face to face group discussions with Jamaican men and women. As a result, their responses have allowed me to fill in the information that was lacking in the secondary sources. Through the use of questionnaires, I was able to target audience of ten people in an efficient amount of time. Nevertheless, as with all data collection, some of opinions expressed warranted a deeper analysis of the subject at hand. Consequently, I resorted to focus groups of r people and individual interviews so that greater insight would be given as to why people had certain opinions; to know how they thought or felt about this topic, as it is a term that is rarely used in public spheres, and even less so in private ones. To conclude, this research speaks to the gaps in empirical research and theoretical conceptualizations of colourism by providing an in-depth exploration of skin tone bias and discrimination among African Jamaicans. Additionally, it seeks to develop a foundation for a theoretical framework that captures the key features of colourism in the 21st century. As such, an examination of race relations will show whether or not there is a preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, and if so the extent to which one would go to achieve features that approximate a Caucasian appearance. The origins of colourism The whites claim superiority, as is done all over the world, and, unlike other parts, the coloured, who ancestrally are the illegitimate off-springs of black and white, claim a positive superiority over the blacks. They train themselves to believe that in the slightest shade the coloured man is above the black man and so it runs right up to whiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ -Marcus Garvey () Colourism exists everywhere in the African Diaspora where slavery or colonization brought with it the imposition of western ideology and white supremacy, (Gabriel, 25). Approximately six hundred thousand Africans came to Jamaica from the Bight of Biafra, the Gold Coast, West Central Africa and the Bight of Benin between 1533 and 1807 (http://www.nlj.gov.jm/NLJ/files/u1/slave_trade_bibliography.pdf, 15/03/2013) to work as slaves on the sugar cane plantation. Upon their arrival, European plantation owners established themselves as superior based on a paradigm through which Africans were biologically and legally inferior because of their skin colour and as such they were forced to endure hard labour. This racist social system, known as white supremacy, resulted in Negro subordination through white domination. However, with the start of miscegenation between white slave owners and African slaves- through rape- a new racial group was created which in turn created a new paradigm. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it was widely held that slaves of colour should not be employed in field labour and that they should be given preference in the training of tradesman, the flower of the slave population.' (Higman, 189). Mulatto children, although most of them were not freed, they were considered better than the black population because of their close proximity to the whites. As a result, they were offered an education, an opportunity through which they held an even greater advantage over the African slaves. Thus, when the sugar plantations experienced a decline in revenue and plantation owners were sinking into debt, some of them left Jamaica, retuning to live in England off the money they had earned through the hard labor of the Africans. This movement off the island by the whites left a void in the social hierarchy, which mulattos came to fill (Gabriel, 27). Consequently, gradations in skin colour through social stratification allowed these mulatto men and women to assume a higher status, socially and economically, according to the lightness of their skin tone. This hierarchical structure persisted even after the complete emancipation of slavery in 1838 with the introduction of freed slaves as lower class, mulattoes as middle class and whites as the elite. Yet, even after more than 200 hundred years of freedom, the idea that a persons destiny is predetermined by their skin tone proves that this historical continuum still exists. Colourism is so deeply embedded in the structure and organization of Caribbean societies that people identify themselves and form relationships according to the standards implemented by the white British (Flynn, 2011). While the 21st century has seen many changes with regards to race discrimination, interpersonal and intrapersonal colourism continues its reigns in Jamaican society. This is ever present in the social interactions among young adults and children who experience discrimination because they are too dark or preference because they are light skin. A standard that is further highlighted by a 22 year old male interviewee who recounted a particular situation in high school where a girl told him outright that she would not date him because he was too dark. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦because internalized racism is so firmly entrenched in the consciousness of black people, they are often unaware that they have a colour complex (Gabriel, 22). Browning, which replaces terms like mulatto, terceroon, quadroon, mustee, musteefino used in the colonial period is a fabled ideal of female beauty and male power in Jamaica society: the just right mix of white and black (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120122/focus/focus5.html, 12/03/2013). However, this term browning also reduces the person being referred to as a mere object, a trophy, a prized possession; they are only seen for the colour of their skin and the socio-economic status attached to their nearness to European characteristics and distance from the African (Henriques, *). As a result, many men and women in Jamaica today are obsessed with trying to attain this ideal because they see it as a sign of upward mobility from their destitute stations. Therefore, while it is totally understandable that e ach person is entitled to their preference, the fact remains that this preference is based on a premise which reinforces the idea that black is undesirable and light skin is ideal. This train of thought is in keeping with the social stratification theory that has been interwoven in the socio-historical tapestry of Jamaica. For a mother to insist that her daughter, black or coloured, gone to buckra [master] house, gone live so that she gone lift de colour was seen as a sign of pride during the days of slavery (Henriques,*). Even now, there are parents who prefer their sons and daughters marry white (Norris, *) because they see it as a chance for their children to move upward in a society that acknowledges and propels the worth of the white bias. Consequently, these children have grown up with the idea that a dark skin tone limits ones chances to a better life and a lighter complexion is the pathway to success. An ideology that is further cemented by the responses given to a survey conducted on this theme of colourism, more specifically preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, through which the majority of respondents despite age, social class and education believ e that if one is fairer in complexion, they are automatically offered more opportunities. Likewise is the case for young adults transitioning from school life to independent status by entering the workforce. I am not surprised that certain employers request light-skinned individuals for recruitmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Appearances do matter in recruitment, and generally speaking, Jamaicans are unable to see the beauty in a man or woman of African descent (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110914/letters/letters1.html, 12/03/2013). Explicit discrimination in the hiring process of many firms is a cause for concern within the Jamaican job market. Historically, darker men and women were not allowed to work in banks, government offices or at the front desk of private businesses until the 1960s (Gabriel, 33). Yet, even though change has been fought for by many involved in the Pan-African and Rastafarian movement, the existence of companies that openly state that they want light skin applicants does nothing for the advancement of a country whose motto recites Out of many, One people . The Acquired Anti-Own Race Syndrome created by Clinton Hutton, a lecturer in political philosophy and culture at the University of the West Indies, Mona refers to the the philosophy and psychology of assumed European world cultural superiority expressed by African peoples in their relations with each other and in perceiving and operating in the world (Hutton, ). Consequently, this ideology expresses the views that both socially and economically, Jamaicans have used the predetermined white supremacy standards to interact with each other. With this in mind, it is no wonder why dark skin Jamaicans think it necessary to try to elevate themselves out of their situations. They are measured by unrealistic goals designed to keep them at the bottom of hierarchical structure and they will remain there if the damaged psyche of those who reinforce these ideals dont change. If not, black Jamaicans will never truly be able to gain access to decent jobs based on merit alone as light skin far outwei ghs education and training skills (Miller, 3164). *** Many sociologists have argued that the mass media promote narrow definitions of who people are and what they can be (Andersen and Taylor, 53). For centuries the media has influenced and propagated the ideal body image for men and women across the globe, which in turn affects their personality, how they interact with one another and their health (Lubkin, 197). Even long before the advent of technological advances the global population has been exposed to paintings of idyllic body images as can be seen in the works of Rubens, Renoir and Raphael who influenced cultural standards for the ultimate body type in their respective eras (Kirsh, 126). As such, one shouldnt be surprised by the outright and even subliminal messages (Jackson, 350) projected to the masses that stipulate what is beautiful and what is not. Televisions, magazines, music and more notably in contemporary societies, the internet, have transmitted these idealistic images that would later epitomize an era. Intrinsically, i t is these major multibillion-dollar media conglomerate companies that concentrate their control on what is assimilated on a day to day basis. Their promotion on what is culturally acceptable has had an explosive effect on the way people think about themselves and about others. According to Italian communist Antonio Gramscis theory on cultural hegemony- through which he broadens the materialist Marxist theory- the ruling class within a culturally diverse society superimposes its values, whether social, economical, political or religious, upon the lower classes, who in turn buy into the status quo operating against their established social structure (Dines and Humez, 62). This dominance of one class or group over another can be used to explain the way in which media is used as a tool by the elites to perpetuate their power, wealth and status [by popularizing] their own philosophy, culture and morality (Boggs, 39). As a result, through analysis of the history of all forms of media leading up to the 21st century, one can easily stipulate that European features and fair skin are more pervasive- no matter the race-, youth is more accepted and beauty is whatever and whomever can approximate to both these ideals. A correlation can then be made between media and th e black ugliness/white beauty binary of imperialism and slavery that has spawned a racialized beauty empire (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 196). And it is this correlation that highlights the conditions under which black people must perform in order to be successful; the same correlation that stipulates black beauty in the 21st century is a paradox. Marcus Garvey advocated for Black Nationalism whereby he encouraged African people to be proud of their race and see the beauty in their own kind (Caravantes, 2003). This movement de-centered white beautys iconicity through anti colonialist aesthetics focused on natural hair and black self-love so as to redefine blackness through positive valuation (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 198). In collaboration with Rastafarianism, these Pan-Africanism Movements promoted ideologies like black is beautiful and Im black and Im proud, however, when mainstream media daily bombards the population with images that say otherwise, what is this country Out of many, one people supposed to believe? The idea that political, social and economical institutions have bought into this perception of superiority/inferiority within the African race only serves to reinforce this long standing belief. Advertising agencies have projected this standard at all levels in the Jamaican society. According to Carolyn Cooper, colourism can be found even at tertiary level education. It is the faces of lighter skin males and female students that are used to advertise the institutions at an international level, whereas the darker students were found in the local yellow pages. She further explains another situation in which family oriented advertisements display images of a dark skin father and light skin mother with a dark skin son and light skin daughter. Social ads also show the same thing. They big-up all the light skin girls them. Yuh cant leave yuh house without seein them brownins on billboards, in the news, on party flyers, in magazines. They dominate the industry, says a 23 year old cocoa coloured female interviewee who resides in Trinidad pursuing her bachelors degree at the University of the West Indies. The idea that men are not as affected by skin colour, hair texture and facial f eatures as their female counterparts, demonstrates their social and economical mobility in a patriarchal society despite the colour of their skin. As a result, it is only the representations of dark-skinned African women as those who are not ideal that is subliminally and openly transmitted. Indubitably, when one references Jamaican media, its music is highly influential, beginning with the famous Bob Marley, who put Jamaica on the map musically, with songs that referenced peace and black unity. However, when Buju Banton came out with his song Love me browning in 1992, consisting of the following lyrics: Me love me car, me love me bike, me love me money and ting but most of all me love me browning, it caused an uproar within the Jamaican society who accused him of denigrating the image of black women by promoting a colonial mindset (Mohammad, 35). Yet, even though he sang Love Black woman within that same year as a response to all the negative comments he was receiving, it didnt hide the fact that he was expressing the views of many Jamaican men who had a penchant for lighter-skinned women. Likewise in contemporary Jamaica, with the popularity of skin bleaching in songs from Vybz Kartel, who has also bleached his skin colour because he wanted to show off his tattoos ()*, Jamaicans are bombarded with the views that having a lighter complexion is the way to go. Music videos use women that are fairer in complexion when the song is about love and for dancehall music the predominantly darker skinned women are used to gyrate. Objectified as a sexual creature a darker woman isnt seen as someone a man would want to build a life with because she is considered only within a sexual context. While there have been some transitions in music where dark skin women are used with terms of endearment, the majority of the popular music videos shown still illustrate the European influenced cookie cutter image of women to sell their songs. The media is all about selling goods and selling fantasies is one of their products. It presents men with the ideal woman and vice versa. As such, lighter complexioned men and women, as depicted in all forms of media, are seen as trophies. According to Natasha Barnes, skin colour still serves as a handicap in access to good service, securing decent jobs, housing and other social amenities (Barnes, 286). Thus, a higher complexioned woman is seen as the symbol of a mans success whereas the man is seen as a way out of poverty and an elevation of social status for women. As such, the following statement given by a 20 year old anonymous female in response to a question about social interactions in Jamaica and the perceptions men and women have of each other, will clearly provide insight into the minds of young African men and women of contemporary Jamaica: If you have a light skin man in Jamaica, especially if you come from inner city Jamaica, is like you have gold. Youre introduced to a new world, you meet new people, have more opportunities because his world is completely different to your own. You cant force anyone to think black is beautiful when the evidence around them testifies to the contrary.   And which of our leaders are going from a rich mahogany to a high yellow shade? The poor can only afford bleaching creams, but the  well-to-do have other means (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120226/news/news4.html, 25/01/2013) With particular attention to the Jamaican government ministers and officials, one sees that darker hued representatives are a minority. While it is not the fault of these officials to possess the education necessary that would allow them the chance to enter into such high esteemed positions the questions remain: Were they offered more opportunities due to their skin complexion? With such a high percentage of those who were given questionnaires saying Yes (82%) a lighter skin hue does open more doors for you, doubt still lingers. However, when newspaper ads highlight the fact that there are still proprietors requesting that trainees be brown or light-skinned as a prerequisite for employment in their firms (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110911/lead/lead1.html , 02/02/2013) it supports the idea that discrimination persists to this day. Certainly, the government has spoken out against any form of skin prejudice and promised to take action, even urging people to boycott businesses lacking black faces, but few express confidence that the culprits will ever be named, (http://www.ipsnews.net/2011/09/jamaica-wanted-light-skinned-only-please/, 02/02/2013). A Darker Shade of Pale Weighing about 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms) on average and covering some 22 square feet (2 square meters), the human skin is the largest organ of the body, composed of a complex system of cell layers, nerves and glands that not only protects them from but also connects them to the outside world. However, what makes an African persons skin colour different to that of a white person, is the amount of melanin produced in the epidermis. As such, darker-skinned people produce more numerous and deeper-colored melanin particles than their fairer-skinned counterparts, which in turn acts as a benefit since they dont need as much bone-strengthening vitamin D, produced through exposure to UV rays  (http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/skin-article/, 09/03/2013). Skin bleaching, also known as skin lightening or skin whitening, on the other hand, refers to the practice of using chemical substances in an attempt to reduce the prominence of skin discolorations and even lighten skin tone by lessening the concentration of  melanin produced. This whitening process can help lighten a tan, fade scars, and alleviate dark patches on the skin through the use of topical skin lightening creams and lotions that often contain plant extracts that have bleaching effects on the skin or chemical agents such as hydroquinone, azelaic acid, and retinoic acid. While several chemicals have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, some have proved to be toxic or have questionable safety profiles. Their harmful effects add to the controversy surrounding their use and the impacts they have on certain ethnic groups who apply skin lighteners to their entire body so as to achieve a lighter complexion. But this can be very risky as the active ingredient in some blea ching creams contain steroids or mercury, a toxic agent that can lead to mercury poisoning causing serious psychiatric, neurological, and  kidney  problem (http://www.webmd.com/beauty/face/skin-lightening-products, 09/03/2013) With a history that can be dated as far back as the Elizabethan age of powder and paint (Williams, 1957), the elaborate white make-up of Japanese Geishas (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/apr/04/japan.nicolemowbray, 08/03/2013) or even the deep rooted desire Indians to have pale skin because it will that is entwined with Indias complex social hierarchy or caste system (Gomes and Westerhof 2001), it is evident that skin bleaching has existed for thousands of years. Yet, despite the warnings given by health officials to educate the masses about the dangers of skin bleaching creams, there are millions of people worldwide who dont heed these messages, particularly Jamaicans, who in fact, have reached dangerous proportions, particularly in the countrys slums. For them, a lighter complexion is seen as a ticket to upward mobility: socially, professionally and economically. As a result, they paste their entire bodies with white cream, don a track suit and intermittently try to refrain fr om the suns darkening powers. The various homemade concoctions such as toothpaste, curry powder, milk powder, household bleach, aloe vera and cornmeal that are used as part of their skin-lightening routine, a routine that some people do up to three times a day, is a way for them to achieve their goal (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20091115/news/news3.html, 12/03/2013). Frantz Fanon (1952), the Martinique-born French psychiatrist, used psychoanalytical theory to explore the psyche of the Negro as shaped by the Eurocentric world in which he lives, especially in a colonial context vis-à  -vis skin colour. Although he does not actually reference skin bleaching, he does speak of the inferiority complex engendered in the mind of Black people, who try to adapt to and imitate the culture of the colonizer so as to attain some sort of identity, especially after having been forcibly removed from their own African roots.   With that in mind, the attempt to assign color privilege based upon proximity to whiteness by circumnavigating the parameters of the white/non-white binary racial hierarchy is the spectrum upon which Pigmentocracy, and therefore colourism, is based (Blay, 5). It is the unconscious and unnatural training of black people from a young age to associate blackness with wrongness that has given rise to this widespread global phenomenon of skin w hitening.   The idea that ones destiny is intertwined with the colour of ones skin is ludicrous to some, however, in the lives of these Jamaicans, it is as absolute as night and day. Synonymous with the practice of slaves in the past, men and women are currently trying to ameliorate their socio-economic standing by marrying into families of a higher breed, but the only way to even reach this gateway of social mobility, according to them, is to physically alter their looks as well. Popular Jamaican proverbs like anything too black nuh good, or when yuh black yuh affi stick back and if yuh brown come around reinforce the high degree of colour prejudice existing in contemporary Jamaica today. The White  ideal (Kardiner   Ovesey, 1962) which includes pale skin, long, straight hair, and aquiline features, assesses the enduring influences on societal assessments of human value. Skin bleaching then represents one attempt to approximate the White ideal and cons

Comparing Science and Religion in Frankenstein and Angels and Demons Es

Comparing Science and Religion in Frankenstein and Angels and Demons Science and religion have been at odds since back in Galileo’s day and maybe even before. The battle rages on even today with debates on cloning and stem cell research. These issues can be seen not only today’s literary works but also in the works from the years past. Two great examples of the past and present are: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Dan Brown’s Angels and Demons. Both deal with the issue of the roles that science and religion play. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a horror story written in 1831. It tells a tale of Victor Frankenstein’s obsession with playing God and creating a man and the consequences that come with it. Not only does the book reflect on Victor’s life and but also on the monster’s life and how it deals with the situations at hand. Angels and Demons is a suspense thriller written in 2000. Robert Langdon has been asked to help solve a murder mystery because it is believed that a secret society that he has studied called the illuminati are behind it. The story takes a ton of twist and turns that involve a container of antimatter, the Catholic Church and a dead priest’s secret. Even though both of these books were written in different times and with totally different plots they still both bring to light the battle between science and religion that may never diminish. Victor Frankenstein is obsessed with his to attempt to create a human. He works on it constantly alienating friends and loved ones. His obsession is finally rewarded with success; he manages to create a monster. This is where Mary Shelley starts to bring in the lesson of playing God. When Victor looks at his creation, he sees what a horror he has created and how hideous a creature it is. â€Å"No mortal could support the horror of that countenance. A mummy again endued with animation could not be so hideous as that wretch† (Shelley 44). Shelley shows that man cannot create things without messing it up. This is would not be the last time that scientist went to far to attempt to create perfection. In 1991 Michael Stewart wrote a story called Prodigy in which a man messes with his daughter’s DNA to make her smarter. However, she becomes a child that has evil genes. (Nelkin 35). This is another way authors show that man is not capable of imitating God. Even though Victor’s description of... ...ck facts before committing them to complete believe. These two books show very well what can happen when religion and science try to battle with each other. There are two types of extremes. Those that want to use advanced technology to expand into the realms of God and those that want to use their religious stance to stop technology from advancing. Frankenstein is blinded by his obsession to create life and the Carmerlengo Carlo Ventresca went to the extreme to punish those that he thought had disobeyed his religion even if it was his own father. Neither extreme is completely right and yet both sides tend to think that they have all the answers. It is a battle that has been going on for centuries and one that is not soon to be done. Works Cited Brown, Dan. Angels and Demons. Pocket Star Books. New York, 2000. Mazur, Allan. Science three, religion zero. Society. May June 1996 V 33 No.4. P 20-28. Nelkin, Dorothy. Genetics, God and sacred DNA. Society. May/June. 1196 V33 no.4 pg 29-43. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Bantam Classics. New York, 1818. Silver, Lee. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. www.princeton.edu/wws320/films/Frankenstein/Frankenstein%20essay.htm

The Hazard of Internet, Cell Phone, and Television Addiction

I am a technology addict. When I have my computer connected to the internet, I can forget the time. I am very busy to search any informations through the internet. Beside internet, I also use my cell phone to chat with my friends all day long. One more activity that can make me addicted is spending my time to watch my favorite TV programs. Yeah, those three kinds of technology are very enjoyable. But, I want people to know the potential risk of over using internet, cell phone, and television in the daily life.First of all, those three kinds of technology make us lazy. Take a look when we are too enjoy watching our favorite TV programs, we will postpone our assignments. We will delay them in 5 minutes later, then 5 minute later again, and again, and finally we don't finish them. Moreover, our time for studying are reduce. We are more interested watching television, browsing through internet, or chatting by phone than study the lesson. When we get assignments from lecturers, we just co py and paste from internet.Once we are too over using those technologies, we will be very wasteful person. for example, If we chat with friends all day long, we will spend so much money to pay phone bills. If we are blogging through the internet, we also have to pay the bandwidth bills. Or maybe, sometimes we don't turn off the computer or the television until we are fall asleep, so the electric claim will increase. Thus, our monthly expense will uncontrolable.Some studies find that over use of those technologies can create diseaseses. A simple example is if we are sitting in front of the screen for a long time without rest, absolutely we will get stomachache, headache, and back pain. The radiation of television or computer screen are also dangerous for our eyes. Just take a look to me, who has been suffered myopic since I become television addict. Another case is when we are using cell phone, actually, we are potentially get the brain cancer.According to Vini Khurana, one of Britai n's top neurosurgeons, using cell phones for more than 10 years can effectively double risk of developing the cancer, such as Vestibular schwannoma (accoustic neuroma) and Astrocytoma (Karachi, 2008). How terrible they are, aren't they? No doubt that those three kinds of technology bring big impact in our life. They give us pleasure and happines. So we can very addict of them. But, they will be very dangerous for us, if we can not manage the time to use them. Thus, cosidering the potential risk of them are very important. (an23)

Effects of Eastern Religions Essay

Eastern religions and their unique belief systems are transforming many social and religious thoughts into an assortment of means for acquiring and developing innovative and contemporary spiritual growth. One of the more influential shifts in mixing religious traditions into western religious cultures may well be considered ritualistic applications, acceptance, and practicing of meditation. Freely borrowing the principles of eastern religious traditions allows an individual extended opportunity to open a connection with his or her chosen God, or Supreme Being, by developing positive emotions, and providing a mental calmness; mean while establishing an acute mental strength within oneself. This practice of clearing the mind, projects an unfragmented focus into the inner self and ones mental intuitiveness, enabling a sharpness and keen ability to stimulate mental alertness, and even suggesting the possibility for mental self-healing. With such widened expressions of religious flexibility, an improved and more comprehensive understanding of diverse truths of belief systems are capable of being discovered. Additionally, through the use of multiple religious observances, one can bear witness to how such effects of Hinduism and Buddhist traditions of meditation, has transformed and enhanced traditional rituals in western religious cultures. Even medicinal benefits can be achieved through the use of advanced breathing techniques, energy practices, and other mental, and physical stimulus. The following synopsis will demonstrate the effects of how ancient beliefs and traditions have produced influences of varying proportions on western civilization. Many eastern religions play an important role in modern medicine. In the past, western medicine has incorporated eastern medicine paralleling different sacred rituals. Many Eastern religions have given birth to a medical practice of their own; one such example includes Taoism. Taoism believes in studying nature and how man is affected by its healing effects. From this adherence to medicinal belief rose the practice of acupuncture, which consists of generating a â€Å"flow of energy,† and how those flows affect the body (Articles base, 2007). Acupuncture, another form of medicinal equivalency, has currently attracted attention and notoriety world-wide. Those who have experienced this sensation have claimed that it leaves one with a feeling of exhilaration. A study conducted by the Stanford University School of Medicine, who promotes acupuncture as having medicinal value, supports its true worth by assisting with such anxieties and medical dilemmas as depression during pregnancy. According to Rachel Manber, PhD, professor of psychiatry and behavioral science, stated â€Å"They hope the results will raise awareness of the problem of depression during pregnancy and provide patients and physicians and alternative to antidepressants† (Manber, 2010). As acupuncture has become popular among western cultures, other configurations of spiritual healing have surfaced, for example meditation and yoga. Through mediation, Siddhartha Gautama, otherwise known as Buddha, was the first person to experience full spiritual enlightenment, primarily due to the deliberate techniques applied. Several ways that meditation can be performed come in everyday tasks such as reading, walking, swimming, and working out. â€Å"From meditation we learn to observe the sensation in the body, which are certainly related to the mind† (Fisher, 2003). Yoga is another practice that the spiritual seeker uses today in meeting the goal to receive purity, wisdom, and peacefulness of mind (Fisher, 2003). The influence of Hinduism is apparent throughout western civilizations and societies. The effects that this has had on the lifestyle and beliefs of most modern Indian are clear. One of the main influences that have roots with Hinduism is in the practice of yoga. Yoga has become extremely popular in the west in the last several decades. Through deep breathing and mediation techniques, the exercise brings a deeper meaning within one’s self. Yoga mediation is not a separate component, but rather a distinct application of meditation. Aside from relaxing and clearing ones thoughts, there is a popular belief that yoga is an all encompassing tool to become physically fit when in fact, this is hardly the case. Yoga meditation is a complete process to â€Å"finding oneself. † Hindu belief in practicing yoga is predestined to guide one to absolute, pure, and eternal bliss, therefore, allowing a person to become wise, wholesome, and peaceful. The practice is one of six schools of Hindu philosophy, in which, there can be found, 196 different sutras of yoga. Each one has different forms of attaining balance, purity, wisdom, and eventually spiritual enlightenment, the essential goal. The first of many types of yoga begins with Raja Yoga. This form of yoga deals mainly with the cleansing of the mind, and is designed to build, develop and sustain a strong mental state through discipline and purification. The way to maintain this state is to have superior health, mental, physical strength and stamina. Furthermore, yoga with such virtuous beliefs, may prove that a pure lifestyle will help in attaining this state of being. Some of the methods used are through abstaining from any influences that would detract from living a pure life such as intoxicant, while also practicing celibacy. Another significant component of yoga is jnana yoga. jnana yoga cultivates four behaviors toward reaching the development of spiritual deliverance. The first is viveka, the ability to understand what is definite and eternal, and what is temporary. Another element of jnana yoga is vairagya. This ritual is intended to acquire an ability to remove oneself from that which is temporary, therefore preparing for the eternal life. The third state of jnana is shad-sampat, in which a person is in full control of his or her mind, a perfect state of concentration and calmness. The fourth state is mumukshutva, a condition that releases a person from his or her temporary state and allows freedom into the eternal state of being. Each of the four sections of Jnana is a preparation toward eternal bliss, and in the end, desiring to reach nirvana. An additional, more precise version of yoga, is Karma, a belief in actions. The meaning of Karma is to do and have done, seeking to have a person behave and act in way that brings one closer to one’s duty, which is to act in an unselfish manner, and to bring peace, calmness and tranquility, with every action one takes. The fourth type of yoga is Bhakti, an instrument of yoga that brings a person closer to God. Within this Practice are nine principles that help a person achieve this state. Although there are various types of yoga, they all parallel each other with the goal of helping to bring a person closer to a divine state with his or her God. Each of the diverse practices of yoga described is a part of modern India, and the influences from Hinduism are apparent in each one. The importance of yoga and Hinduism in India is a large part that is accepted by the society in accordance with the belief system. The following of Yoga is not only practiced in India, but has also brought the attention to many westerner civilizations. Yoga is not a religion, but more as a means of overcoming the hectic demands of family, work, and life. Practicing yoga gives mental balance as well as a means to optimize health and well being. The effects of yoga and meditation have been proven, and positive results in aiding and nurturing the treatment of learning disabilities, nursing homes, and treatment of alcoholism, well documented. This rich culture of ancient Hinduism has had many historical changes, challenges, and an influence is currently seen on a global scale. Zen Buddhism migrated to the United States around the 19th century. Since then, the religion has adapted to the western way of life, and has helped to evolve the religion. â€Å"As Westerners themselves are taking strong interest in Buddhism, those who have grown up as Buddhist are reassessing their religion and finding new depths in it† (Fisher, 2003, p. 182). Buddhist monasteries and retreats have emerged all throughout the United States. From the 19th century, Buddhism has helped many American’s learn to function as valued members in society by following the meditation and Zen teachings of the religion. â€Å"Buddhism gained a foothold among a significant number of Western intellectuals and particularly during the 1960s and early ‘70s among young people seeking new forms of religious experience and expression† (Britannica, p. 2 ). Although the religion thrived during the 60s and 70s, the active Buddhist today is no longer the young, free loving individuals seen in the past. Most modern day believers include parents, and families. Parents can bring their children to daycare at the same time as the parents go to rooms to chant and meditate. â€Å"As more Buddhist mediation centers make their homes in the suburbs, reflecting the spread of that ancient religion throughout the United States, many are adapting to American ways† (Orr, ’98, p. 2). Buddhists of today can go to retreats for weekend sessions or year long-hiatus. These retreats are not vacations because the religion is taken seriously among most practicing Americans. Some may credit Japanese scholar D. T Suzuki (1870-1966) for bringing Buddhism to the United States, although others say it was due in part to the Chinese conquest in Tibet around 1959. Either way, there are many temples that began construction by Tibetan monks that came to the United States for refuge. â€Å"A number of the highest Tibetan lamas, forced out of Tibet, have established spiritual communities in the United States, complete with altars full of sacred Tibetan artifacts† (Fisher, 2003 p. 178). However, along with the sacred artifacts come some differences. Most Buddhist temples do not have weekly services, but in the US, services are typically held on Sundays. A Buddhist service is normally performed in the Japanese or Chinese language, but in the US the services are predominately conducted in English. The leaders of the US temples still follow the traditional teachings, but customize it to reach out to more people in the United States. In modern day communist China, religion is viewed much differently from most places in society today. Shortly after becoming a communist state, many religions, religious practices, and texts were destroyed and suppressed. In fact, most Taoism and Buddhism temples and texts were destroyed in China during the 1960s and 70s (Fisher, 2003). Since then China has become more westernized and recently have adopted a free market economy changing much of China’s communist ways including some religious ideals. China has even declared Taoism and Buddhist temples as historical sites and promotes building of new temples. Although this move by the government was made to promote tourism alone (Fisher, 2003). Religion today is still kept in hiding and many traditions are discouraged. Any new religion is seen as a treat to the state and is quickly suppressed, sometimes violently. After communist China titled Confucianism as an old way and discarded it from society, parts of Confucianism are now being re-introduced back into everyday life. China was once known as one of the safest, criminal free countries in the world (Fisher, 2003). From the time when China opened its doors to the western society and to a free market, criminal activities began to rise. No longer were communist ideals keeping people from committing such crimes. The government therefore, began to bring back teachings of Confucianism to schools and society for morale and ethical purposes, to help control such criminal behaviors. The teachings of being the best person possible and the best person to society, teachings of social harmony, and a personal sense of the meaning of life started to become very popular among communist Chinese society. China has even tried to fuse both the ideas of capitalism and Confucian together to make a â€Å"Capitalist Confucianism† (Fisher, 2003). Of course, even events such as recognizing Confusion’s birthday was re-introduced for economic reasons. The government does keep all religious aspects of Confucianism at bay, along with the idea of free thought. Though, many intellectuals and scholars are trying to fight for freedom of thought. They argue free thought would help improve the economy even more at this time while there is a free market. Even religious practices such as meditation are starting to make a comeback in modern day communist China. Meditation is seen as a spiritual practice for people who follow Taoism and Buddhism in China and also seen as a practice to relieve stress and to relax much like it is seen in western society for others. Since 1995 there have been many experiments on the benefits of meditation in China. Particularly types of meditation known as integrative body–mind training (IBMT) created in the 1990s have been the focus of these studies. IBMT is a type of meditation that teaches a person about a state of calm and focus without the spiritual side of meditation. This type of meditation is said to improve emotional and cognitive performance and social behavior (Posner, 2007). Recent studies have proven that IBMT not only helps improve one’s focus and performance, but also helps a person deal with stress, tension, anger, depression, and fatigue. It also improved those people’s energy levels and made those same people have a more positive outlook on a day-to-day basis. This all come from just a five day course, two hours a day, of IBMT group practices. So meditation in Chinese culture is not only seen to help benefit one’s mental part of life, but also helps make a person become a better person too him or herself and society both mentally and physically. With the resonating effects of eastern religion throughout the western world, social and political lives have been influenced in a variety of ways. A general open-mindness for allowing more opportunities for spiritual growth is becoming an ever-changing cause for overcoming overly rational and extreme traditions of the many religious belief systems in existence today. The availability of technology has also become instrumental in exploration of other belief systems, therefore making them within easier reach for adaptation, offering combined religious values and rituals into one belief system. With such ease of exploration, courtesy of the Internet and widespread mobility, the range of information can enable seekers to learn about other religious traditions, therefore providing diverse individual religious expression (Guarino, 2009). Some Christian leaders however, worry that there may an increase in distractions from worshiping their true path of faith, therefore diluting Christian doctrines. Regardless of ancestral belief systems or modern paradigm paralysis, the mixtures of religions and cultures will continue the spread into western civilizations and societies

Globalisation essays

Globalisation essays In the past few years, one of the most controversial economic issues has been global free trade. The proponents claim that nations engaged in open trade would experience a great deal of economic growth. Opponents think that giving foreign countries unrestricted access to American markets will cause a decrease in the number of American jobs, and will pose a threat to American sovereignty. It is the opinion of this writer that the latter is correct. The problem with global free trade is really fourfold. The first and foremost problem with such measures is, as stated above, the threat posed to American sovereignty. All free trade agreements set up international bureaucracies to govern the participants; to ensure that all parties comply with the terms of the agreement. Vice President Gore tried to allay the concerns of the opponents of GATT by claiming that the World Trade Organization would hold no authority over the U.S. He claimed that we would only be bound by those rules which we agree to and no others. However, in his very next breath, he claimed that other countries could be forced to comply with their "international trade obligations" (Gore). Clearly, this is a complete contradiction. No contry, except perhaps the U.S., would agree to so obvious a double standard. Newt Gingrich is at the opposite end of the political spectrum from the Vice-President. Of GATT, he once said, "... we need to be honest about the fact that we are transferring from the United States at a practical level significant authority to a new organization... I would feel better if the people who favor this would just be honest about the scale of change." ("How Can") However, despite his own concerns, and the victory he was handing his political opponents, he publicly supported and voted for GATT. Self-flagellation seems to be a hobby of these people. The second problem deals with the market size. How does the size of the market in the U.S. compare with ...